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IHE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


OR 

flD^tboloo^  of  tbe  (Brecbo  anb  IRomans 


TRANSLATED  AND  EDITED  FROM 
THE  TWENTIETH  EDITION  OF  A.  H.  PETISCUS 

BY 

KATHERINE  A.  RALEIGH 


NEW  YORK 

CASSELL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

104  & 106  FOURTH  AVENUE  . 


Copyright,  1892,  by 

CASSELL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 


All  rights  reserved. 


THE  MERSHON  COMPANY  PRESS- 
RAHWAY,  Na  J. 


PREFACE. 


I HAVE  been  asked  to  write  a few  words  by  way  of  intro- 
duction to  ‘‘  The  Gods  of  Olympos,”  and  I do  so  with  the 
more  pleasure  as  I believe  that  the  book — spite  of  the  many 
mythological  manuals  that  have  appeared — supplies  a very 
definite  want. 

The  Olympos  ” of  Dr.  Petiscus — on  which,  with  large 
alterations  and  additions,  the  present  book  is  based — has 
gone  through  twenty  editions.  This  alone  proves  it  to 
have  been  pleasantly  and  readably  written,  and  to  have 
been  well  adapted  to  the  elementary  students  for  whom  it 
was  intended.  Even  in  its  twentieth  edition,  however,  the 
Olympos  ” is — I say  it  advisedly — an  old-fashioned  book  ; 
and  this,  at  the  risk  of  seeming  paradoxical,  I assert  to  be 
for  our  particular  purpose  its  peculiar  merit,  as  I will  pro- 
ceed to  explain. 

The  whole  method  of  mythological  study  is  at  present  in 
flux.  The  bright  hopes  raised  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  by  what  may  be  called  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean theory  have  now  for  the  most  part  faded  ; we  know 
now  that  in  the  nomen  (name)  is  not  to  be  sought  the  origin 
of  the  numen  (god).  We  know,  also,  that  what  may  be 

V 


VI 


PREFACE. 


called  the  cosmical  method  will  not  do  ; that  we  cannot 
reduce  a god  to  the  expression  of  one  simple  natural  pheno- 
menon ; that  Hermes  is  more  than  the  wind,  and  Athene’s 
continent  is  beyond  the  clear  blue  sky. 

A method  which  had  at  least  simplicity  to  commend  it 
died  hard,  but  it  is  dead,  and  a new  theory  lives  in  its  place, 
a new  master,  with  tyrannies  of  its  own — the  Folk-lore 
Method,  of  which  Mr.  Andrew  Lang  and  Mr.  J.  G.  Frazer 
are,  in  England,  the  best-known  exponents.  Nowadays  we 
are  taught  to  study  the  origines  of  Greek  gods,  not  in  the 
Hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda,  which  is  a relief,  as  so  few  of  us 
can  read  them,  but  by  the  light  of  analogy  in  the  Custom 
and  Myth  of  the  contemporary  Savage.  The  shock  was 
severe  at  first,  but  we  are  settling  down,  and  most  of  us  now 
recognize  the  substantial  soundness  of  the  position.  No  less 
do  we,  and  probably  its  original  supporters,  see  clearly  its 
inadequacy  as  applied  to  Greek  mythology.  It  leaves  us 
with  the  beginning  of  things,  with  certain  primitive  ele- 
mentary conceptions,  and  takes  no  heed  of  the  complex 
structure  reared  on  the  simple  basis.  The  seductive  sim- 
plicity of  the  ^‘Corn-mother  ” and  the  “ Tree-spirit,”  and, 
worst  of  all,  the  ever-impending  “ Totem,”  is  almost  as 
perilous  as  the  old  Sun  and  Moon  snare. 

What  really  lies  before  the  Greek  mythologist  of  the 
present  and  future,  is  a task  so  complex,  so  difficult,  that  he 
may  well  shrink.  Gleaning  all  he  can  from  the  Folk-lore 
Methodist,  admitting  that  the  primitive  fancy  takes  at  all 
times  analogous  forms,  acknowledging  that  the  stately  ritual 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


of  the  Greek  temple  was  based  on  the  sympathetic  magic  of 
the  savage,  he  is  yet  at  the  beginning  of  his  task.  He  has 
the  demons  and  spirits  of  primitive  man  at  one  pole,  and  the 
‘‘  gods  of  Olympos  ” at  the  other;  while  a link  in  this  chain 
is  wanting  he  knows  no  rest.  It  is  not  enough  for  him  to 
hint  airily  that  Dionysos  may  have  been  a bull  or  a tree, 
that  Apollo  may  take  his  choice  between  a dog,  a wolf,  and 
a mouse — this  is  as  little  satisfactory  as  to  offer  Hermes  the 
old  alternative  of  resolving  himself  into  the  rain  or  the  wind 
— what  he  must  do,  or  fail,  is  to  trace  each  Saga  to  its  local 
home,  to  carry  out  the  work  that  the  great  H.  D.  Muller 
began  before  his  time,  to  disentangle  the  confederacy  of 
local  cults”  from  which  the  ultimate  Olympian  assembly 
was  evolved. 

But  in  the  preface  to  an  elementary  book  on  mythology 
why  touch  on  questions  so  abstruse  ? Simply  because  they 
affect  the  method  of  elementary  teaching,  and  hence  mould 
my  conception  of  what  an  elementary  handbook  should  be. 
To  my  mind,  it  should  not  deal  with  matter  at  present  con- 
troversial. 

The  necessity  of,  what  I may  call  for  shortness'  sake, 
the  tribal  ” method  is  dawning  on  the  writers  of  hand- 
books ; hints  are  scattered  here  and  there  through  ele- 
mentary books  that  the  gods  as  they  appeared  in  Homer  are 
not  the  primary  imaginations  of  the  gifted  Greek,  have  not 
sprung,  like  Athene,  full  armed  from  the  creative  brain, but 
are  the  late  and  literary  stage  of  a long  evolution.  Posei- 
don, it  is  whispered,  was  not  originally  the  god  of  the  sea  ; 


Vlll 


PREFACE. 


Artemis  and  Apollo  had  originally  nothing  to  do  with  each 
other  ; the  marriage  of  Zeus  and  Hera  was  a latter-day 
thing.  As  in  this  matter  the  present  writer  has  been  first 
and  worst  offender,  she  may  be  allowed  to  record  her  con- 
viction, based  on  many  years  of  mythological  teaching — 
that  such  scattered  suggestions  are  in  the  elementary  hand- 
book premature,  and  to  the  student  merely  confusing.  It 
may  be  possible  ten  years  hence  to  write  a manual  on  the 
historico-tribal  method,  but  the  time  is  not  yet.  For  the 
present  we  must,  for  the  student,  set  forth  the  Gods  of 
Olympos  ” as  ultimate  facts,  with  which  he  is  bound  to 
become  intimately  acquainted  before  he  sets  foot  in  the 
tempting  field  of  unproved  hypothesis.  Therefore,  to  return 
to  my  point,  the  method  of  Dr.  Petiscus,  though  old-fash- 
ioned, is  best  ; he  is  safe  ; he  knows  nothing  of  the  new 
lights,  therefore  he  cannot  prematurely  reflect  them. 

In  the  English  edition  his  book  has  been  freely  dealt 
with,  his  occasional  lapses  into  mere  hypothesis  have  been 
ruthlessly  excised,  his  somewhat  lengthy,  and  often  senti- 
mental, excursions  condensed,  for  quotations  from  German 
poets,  passages  from  English  writers  have  been  here  and 
there  substituted  as  more  suggestiveto  the  English  student. 
Additions  have  been  made  with  a liberal  hand.  Eight  new 
illustrations  have  been  added,*  mostly  from  vase-paintings, 
a branch  of  Greek  art  wholly  ignored  even  in  the  twentieth 

’ For  permission  to  reproduce  these  engravings  the  thanks  of  publisher 
and  editor  are  due  to  Messrs.  Macmillan. 


PREFACE. 


IX 


edition  of  the  German  book.  The  most  important  addition 
is,  however,  that  of  the  abundant  references  added  by  the 
translator.  A German  popular  book  has  usually  no  refer- 
ences at  all.  It  bears  the  superscription,  writ  large,  ‘‘  Thus 
far  shalt  thou  go  and  no  farther.”  In  England,  for  intel- 
lectual as  for  social  matters,  we  draw  between  the  specialist 
and  the  public  no  hard  and  fast  lines  of  class  distinction. 
It  is  for  the  student  himself  to  decide  if  he  will  enter,  the 
door  is  at  least  wide  open. 

The  manual,  then,  in  its  English  form  is  addressed  to 
three  possible  classes  of  readers,  and  should  be  used  as  fol- 
lows : The  text  of  the  book  should  be  read  right  through 
as  it  stands,  ignoring  all  references.  The  student  will  then 
have  gained  such  a knowledge  of  mythology  as  is  necessary 
for  a general  education,  and  for  the  rough  understanding  of 
classical  allusions  in  modern  literature  ; he  will,  through 
the  illustrations,  be  acquainted  with  some  of  the  best-known 
instances  of  Greek  mythology  as  expressed  in  Greek  art. 
Here  the  student  of  the  first  sort  will  lay  the  book  aside. 
If,  however,  he  have  been  attracted  by  that  inherent  beauty 
in  Greek  imagery  which  the  medium  of  no  manual  can 
wholly  obscure,  he  will  go  a step  further,  he  will  wish  to 
study  the  actual  form,  literary  and  artistic,  that  these  myths 
took  in  classical  days.  He  must  then  take  the  book  in  hand 
a second  time,  and,  looking  up  all  the  references  to  classical 
poets.,  read  the  passages  carefully,  either  in  the  original  or  in 
the  best  available  translations.  Side  by  side  with  this  he 
must  study  the  statues,  vases,  etc.,  of  the  illustrations,  when 


X 


PREFACE. 


possible,  ill  the  originals,  where  that  is  impracticable,  in 
photographs  or  the  best  reproductions.  The  illustrations 
of  a handbook  are  necessarily  little  more  than  guide-posts. 
He  now  knows  the  art-form  of  the  Greek  myth,  and  here, 
if  his  impulse  be  merely  artistic  and  contemplative,  he  may 
well  end  his  studies.  But  it  may  be  that  his  impulse  is  also 
or  exclusively  scientific — that  he  desires  to  know  the  origines 
of  things  mythological.  To  him  at  this  third  stage  the 
references  to  modern  scientific  writers  are  addressed.  They 
are  not  meant  to  be  exhaustive.  They  include  only  what 
is  best  and  most  reliable,  most  in  touch  with  modern  method, 
or  again  such  writings  as  from  the  point  of  view  of  accumu- 
lation of  material  are  indispensable  ; occasionally  where 
nothing  is  first-rate  the  best  available  is  given. 

The  book,  then,  while  it  is  specially  intended  for  the 
elementary  learner,  the  school-boy  and  school- girl,  offers 
itself  also  to  the  more  advanced  student  of  classical  art  and 
literature,  and  humbly  as  a guide-post  to  the  intending 
specialist. 


Jane  E.  Harrison, 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Character  and  Meaning  of  the  Gods  of 
Classic  Antiquity 


CHAPTER  I. 

v^The  Origin  of  the  Gods  . 


12 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  Gods  of  Olympos 


19 


CHAPTER  HI. 


Sea  and  River  Gods 


119 


chapter  IV. 


Earth-gods 


CHAPTER  V. 

Divinities  of  the  Underworld 


133 

161 


CPIAPTER  VI. 


Myths  of  Heroes 


U4 


GENERAL  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 


Elementary 


More 

advanced 


For  Mythology  (Greek). 


ICollignon,  Maxime 

Ely,  Talfourd 
Langl,  Josef  ... 

/ Roscher,  W.  H. 

Baumeister,  August 

i Preller,  L.  ... 
(or) 

Preller,  L. 


Manual  of  Mythology,  translated 
by  Jane  E.  Harrison. 

Olympos. 

Griechische  Gotter-und  Helden- 
gestalten. 

Ausfiihrliches  Lexikon  der  grie- 
chischen  und  romischen  My- 
thologie,  complete  to  las. 

DenkmMer  des  klassischen  Alter- 
thums. 

Griechische  Mythologie,  3^®  Auf- 
lage,  V.  E.  Blew. 

Griechische  Mythologie,  4*®  Auf- 
lage,  V.  C.  Robert. 


For  Comparative  Mythology, 


Frazer,  J.  G.  ... 

Lang,  Andrew  ... 

,,  ,, 

Mannhardt,  Wilhelm  ... 


The  Golden  Bough. 

Custom  and  Myth. 

Myth,  Ritual,  and  Religion. 

Mythologische  Forschungen,  herausgegeben  von 
Hermann  Patzig. 


Murray,  A.  S.  ... 
Milliet,  F. 

Gerhard,  E. 

Rayet  and  Collignon 


For  Vase  Paintings, 

Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology. 

Etude  sur  les  premieres  periodes  de  la  Ceramique 
Grecque. 

Auserlesene  Vasenbilder. 

Histoire  de  la  Ceramique  Grecque. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FULL-PAGE  PLATES. 

PLATE 

I.  Zeus  of  Otricoli  (Vatican^  Rome)  . Frontispiece 


OPPOSITE  PAGE 

II.  Hera  {Vii/a  Ludovisi^  Rome)  . . . .28 

III.  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  {Found at  Olympia^  1877. 

Restored  by  Schaper)  . . . . .42 


IV.  Pallas- Athene  {After  Pheidas,  Found  at 

Athens^  1880)  .......  48 

V.  Apollo  Belvedere  {Rome)  . . . *52 

VI.  Apollo  Musaqetes  {Vaticait^  Rome) , . . 82 


VII.  A Sea-God  {Vatican^  Rome)  . . . .120 

VIII.  Laokoon-Group  {Vatican^  Rome)  . . . 250 


ENGRA  VINGS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

1 . Zeus-group  from  the  Altar-frieze  of  Pergamon  i 5 

2.  Jupiter  Verospi  {Vatican,  Rome)  . . . .20 

3.  Hera  {Vatican,  Rome)  . . . . . ,29 

4.  Nike  of  Samothrake  {restored  by  Zumbuscli)  . 30 


XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

5.  Ganymedes,  after  Leochares  {Vatican^  Rome)  . 33 

6.  Eirene  with  the  Young  Plutos,  after  Kephiso- 

DOTOS  [Munich) 36 

7.  Fortuna  [Vatican^  Rome) 38 

8.  Black-figured  Vase  : Birth  of  Athene  [British 

Museum)  . . . . . . . .46 

9.  Athene-group  from  the  Altar-frieze  of  Per- 

GAMON  [restored  hy  Toudeur)  . . . -47 

10.  Pallas- Athene  [Capitol^  Rome)  . . . -49 

11.  Apollo  [Vatican^  Rome)  . . . . .60 

12.  Artemis  [Vatica^i^  Rome)  . . . . .64 

13.  Helios-relief  [from  Troy) 68 

[4.  Blacas-krater  : Eos  Pursues  Kephalos  at  Sun- 
rise [British  Museum)  . . . . • 

15.  Hekate  [Capitol^  Rome)  . . . . -74 

16.  Mithras  [Vaticu7ij  Rome)  . . . . -75 

17.  Asktepios  [Vatica/i^  Ro77ie)  .....  79 

18.  Bas-relief  from  Epidauros  : Asklepios 

Museum^  Athens)  . . . . . .80 

19.  Melpomene  [Vatican^  Rome)  . . . . .84 

20.  Thalia  [Vatican^  Rome)  ......  85 

21.  Ares  [Villa  Ludovisi^  Rome)  . . . . *90 

22.  Venus  [Capitol^  Rome) 97 

23.  Eros  [Capitol^  Rome)  ......  100 

24.  Eros  and  Psyche  [Capitol^  Rome)  . . . 102 

25.  Cylix  : Birth  of  Erichthonios  [Ber/iu  Museuni)  110 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XV 


FIG.  PAGE 

26.  Hestia  (Rome) 112 

27.  Poseidon  and  Amphiteite  {Afunich)  . , .122 

28.  Nereid  {Naples)  . . . . . . • ^27 

29.  The  Nile  {Vatican^  Rome) 131 

30.  Demeter  {Vatican^  Rome)  .....  L34 

31.  Heiron  Vase  : Starting  of  Triptolemos  {Briiish 

Museum)  . . . . . . . • I37 

32.  Demeter,  Persephone  and  a Youth  {Athens)  . 140 

33.  Dionysos  on  the  Monument  of  Lysikrates 

{Athens)  ........  141 

34.  Ariadne  {Vatican^  Rome)  . . . . • 14^ 

35.  Cylix  by  Hieron  : Dance  of  Maenads  {Berlin 

Museum)  . . . . . . . • 147 

36.  Indian  Bacchos  {Vatican^  Rome)  . . . *149 

37.  Silenus  and  Bacchus  {Vatican^  Rome).  . *151 

38.  Flora  {Naples)  . . . . . . .159 

39.  Medusa  {JLilla  Ltcdovisi^  Rome)  ....  169 

40.  Genius  of  Death 171 

41.  Amphora  ‘‘ Underworld  ” .172 

42.  Head  of  Aphrodite  from  Melos  {Louvre.^  Paris)  173 

43.  Centaur  {Capitol.^  Rome)  . . . . .193 

44.  Young  Centaur  {Capitol.^  Rome)  . . . .194 

45.  Cylix:  Exploits  of  Theseus  {British  Museum)  . 217 

46.  Meleagros  {Vatican,  Rome)  . . . . .222 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  CHARACTER  AND  MEANING  OF  THE  GODS 
OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY. 


Petersen,  Chr.  ... 
Preller  Robert  ... 
MUeller,  Iwan  ... 


Toepffer,  J. 
Immerwahr, 
Mueller,  H.  D.... 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

Das  Zwolfgottersystem  der  Griechen  und  Romer. 
Romische  Mythologie  (Einleitung). 

Handbuch  der  klassischen  Alterthumswissenschaft. 
Section  on  “ Die  griechischen  Alterthiiiner,” 
by  Paul  Stengel. 

Attische  Genealogie. 

Mythen  und  Kulte  Arkadiens. 

Mythologie  der  griechischen  Stamme. 


Any  study,  however  elementary,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
legends  carries  us  at  once  into  a new  world,  which,  both 
in  popular  belief  and  poetic  fancy,  was  peopled  by  gods, 
goddesses  and  heroes.  These  divine  beings  ruled  over  the 
earth,  the  sea  and  the  underworld  ; they  presided  over 
every  aspect,  not  only  of  human  life,  but  of  all  external 
nature.  Hence  not  only  were  the  dwellings  of  men  under 
their  protection,  but  mountains,  valleys,  meadows,  groves 
and  springs  were  animated  by  their  presence,  and  thus 
became  to  primitive  man  in  a sense  sacred. 

Since  man  conceived  of  everything,  external  nature  and 
his  own  alike,  as  the  work  of  divinities,  whose  keen  sight 

2 


i 


THE  GODS  OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY 


nothing  could  escape,  a feeling  of  sacred  awe  kept  him  back 
from  any  action  which  could  cause  them  injury  or  offence. 
He  believed,  too,  that  all  events  happening  around  or  in 
him  had  their  origin  in  some  divine  impulse.  The  conception 
of  Fate,  as  the  order  of  the  Universe,  unalterable  even  by 
the  gods  themselves,  is  not  a part  of  primitive  belief. 

This  belief  in  the  gods  was  connected  with  every  action 
of  human  life.  The  warrior,  marching  to  the  field  of  battle, 
commended  himself  to  the  god  who  would  protect  his 
own.  The  husbandman  ploughed  his  field  trusting  that 
the  goddess  who  had  taught  men  how  to  plough  and  sow 
would  grant  a plenteous  harvest.  Without  the  blessing  of 
the  gods  no  seaman  could  hope  for  a lucky  voyage,  the 
poet’s  inspiration  to  song  and  solemn,  ode  was  a divine  gift, 
and  so  was  the  skill  of  the  plastic  artist.  Apart  from  the 
favour  of  the  Immortals  the  pleasures  of  social  feast  and 
sport  could  not  exist,  therefore  a prayer  and  a libation  of 
wine  always  began  the  banquet.  This  piety  of  the  ancient 
world,  beginning  with  a vague  belief  in  spirits  and  demons, 
developed  later  into  a complex  Polytheism.  The  study  of 
mythology,  then,  brings  us  into  intimate  contact  with  one, 
and  that  the  most  sacred  aspect  of  national  life,  and  a careful 
consideration  of  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  will  give  us  some  insight,  otherwise  unattainable, 
into  their  national  characteristics. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  are  no  more,  and  their  religion 
has  perished.  What  we  know  of  it  is  not  from  ear-  or  eye- 
witness, but  from  the  literature  of  the  time  and  from  the 
monuments  of  art  which  survived  the  fall  of  the  ancient 
nations.  The  temples  of  the  gods  fell  into  decay,  but  their 
ruins  are  enough  to  give  us  some  idea  of  their  formei 
magnificence. 

The  men  who  built  these  temples  are  still  our  models 


CULTURE  AND  RELIGION 


3 


in  art,  literature  and  state-craft,  and  in  many  ways  un- 
surpassed. We  all  know,  at  least  by  name,  the  poems  of 
Homer,  Pindar,  Anakreon,  Theokritos,  and  the  plays  of 
Aeschylus,  Sophokles,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes.  We 
have  heard  of  the  orators  Demosthenes  and  AEschines,  and 
of  the  first  historians,  Herodotos,  Thukydides,  and  Xenophon. 
The  great  philosophers,  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  the  famous 
Romans,  Cicero,  Horace,  Livy,  Ovid,  Tacitus  and  Juvenal, 
are  all  well  known  ; and  of  the  countless  number  of  Greek 
sculptors  and  painters,  we  are  familiar  at  least  with  the 
names  of  Pheidias,  Praxiteles,  Apelles  and  Zeuxis. 

The  culture  represented  by  these  great  names  was  largely 
based  on  religious  belief,  and  it  is  this  religious  belief  we 
must  now  study  in  poetry,  art  and  ritual. 

There  is  much  that  is  noble  and  beautiful  in  Greek  and 
Roman  legendary  faith,  but  it  is  characterized  largely  by  a 
tendency  to  look  wdthout  rather  than  within.  It  was  not 
until  the  latest  phases  of  ancient  civilization  that  the  spiritual 
conception  was  formed  of  one  sole  Supreme  Being,  the  ruler 
of  human  destiny.  We  must  therefore  constantly  remember 
that  modern  and  Christian  notions  are  foreign  to  classical 
thought. 

By  Mythology  we  understand  the  whole  body  of  legends 
describing  the  origin  and  action  of  the  gods,  and  attempting 
to  account  for  the  beginnings  of  the  visible  world. 

There  never  was  a nation  which  frorli  its  very  beginning 
stood  at  a high  level  of  mental  culture.  An  individual 
human  being  is  not  born  educated  and  experienced.  The 
latent  powers  of  his  mind  must  be  gradually  developed 
during  his  childhood  and  youth  ; the  growth  of  his  percep- 
tive power  and  the  ordering  of  his  ideas  must  bring  him  to 
a knowledge  of  the  things  around  him  and  lay  a foundation 
for  the  understanding  of  serious  truth.  Only  gradually  can 


4 


THE  GODS  OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY 


he  be  freed  from  the  misleading  fancies  of  youth,  and  learn 
to  apply  his  faculties  to  good  and  worthy  ends.  Just  so 
it  is  with  nations  ; we  can  distinguish  in  them,  as  in  men, 
different  stages  of  mental  and  emotional  culture. 

Even  rude  primitive  man  feels  that  he  is  surrounded  by 
forces  which  are  mightier  than  he,  and  exercise  an  influence 
upon  him.  He  sees  around  him  things  which  he  did  not 
make,  which  he  cannot  understand  and  over  which  he  has 
no  control,  and  it  is  naturally  not  long  before  the  question 
occurs  to  him,  ‘‘Whence  comes  all  that  I see  around  me, 
and  who  brought  it  into  being  ? He  dimly  feels  that  there 
must  be  creative  powers,  the  sources  of  existence,  but  his 
powers  of  thought  are  too  unpractised  to  examine  facts  and 
draw  logical  inferences.  He  simply  allows  his  fancy  free 
play,  and  invents  for  himself  a superior  being  from  his  own 
human  standpoint.  As  he  knows  nothing  higher  than  man, 
he  thinks  of  his  god  as  a man,  more  perfect  and  powerful 
than  himself. 

But  the  forces  by  which  man  sees  himself  surrounded  are 
apparently  independent  of  each  other  and  of  any  supreme 
controlling  power.  Sometimes  they  even  seem  to  oppose 
and  counteract  each  other.  Thus  primitive  man  conceives 
of  as  many  gods  as  there  are  forces  conditioning  his  exis- 
tence, varying  among  themselves  in  beauty,  dignity  and 
power.  Even  in  destructive  and  harmful  agencies  man  sees 
something  divine,  which  he  had  better  try  to  appease.  Thus 
the  Greeks  peopled  nature  with  self-created  beings,  each 
claiming  his  proper  tribute  of  worship,  love  or  fear.  Air, 
water,  earth,  wood,,  corn-fields  and  the  homes  of  men  were 
full  of  divine  life.  All  natural  occurrences  were  ascribed  to 
one  or  other  of  these  mighty  mysterious  existences,  and  with 
a thrill  of  veneration  men  strove  to  win- their  kindly  favour 
by  services  and  gifts  such  as  they  would  approve.  In  ordei 


THE  COMPLEX  NATURE  OF  MYTHOLOGY 


5 


to  ensure  the  actual  presence  of  the  gods  in  special  holy 
places  temples  and  altars  were  erected. 

With  these  sacred  places  were  connected  sacrifices,  expia- 
tory offerings,  votive  gifts,  festal  processions,  great  popular 
festivals,  such  as  the  Olympian,  Nemean,  Pythian  and 
Isthmian  Games,  and  secret  rites  or  mysteries,  such  as  those 
of  Demeter  at  Eleusis.  The  Greeks,  simple  and  direct  as 
they  were,  had  no  doubt  of  the  actual  presence  of  the  gods 
in  these  places  consecrated  to  them.  This  belief  descended 
from  father  to  son,  and  was  elaborated  by  the  development 
and  beautifying  of  outward  ritual,  and  by  the  assimilation 
of  many  foreign  customs. 

Thus  arose  the  complex  fabric  of  Mythology,  as  we  find 
it  in  the  literature  of  the  best  periods  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
that  mass  of  legendary  lore  which  teaches  us  what  the 
ancients  thought  about  the  creation  of  the  universe,  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  the  gods  and  the  heroes.  These  ideas 
took  different  forms  according  to  the  condition  and  stage 
of  culture  of  the  ancient  peoples  among  whom  they  were 
current.  No  wonder  that  in  a theology  put  together  from 
so  many  legends,  belonging  to  such  various  peoples  and 
times,  there  should  be  much  that  is  apparently  contradic- 
tory, extraordinary,  absurd  and  impossible.  These  stories, 
like  the  nations  to  which  they  belonged,  underwent  a long 
process  of  change.  They  represent  the  early  rude  stage  of 
human  life,  as  well  as  the  flower  of  later  culture  in  the 
times  when  poets  and  philosophers  made  it  their  aim  to 
glorify  the  gods. 

At  a time  when  most  of  these  legends  were  centuries  old, 
they  were  misunderstood  by  the  ancients  themselves,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  invent  new  meanings,  corresponding 
more  nearly  to  the  stage  of  contemporary  culture.  The 
further  Greek  mythology  advanced  on  this  path,  the  more 


6 


THE  GODS  OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY 


was  the  real  origin  of  the  gods  forgotten,  and  the  more 
spiritual  did  their  conception  of  them  become.  More  and 
more  of  the  old  stories  and  beliefs  had  to  be  given  up,  but 
re-appeared  from  time  to  time  and  mingled  with  newer 
legends.  From  this  arose  contradictory  versions,  confused 
and  whimsical  interpretations,  which  could  not  fail  to  result 
in  the  break-up  and  downfall  of  paganism. 

Now-a-days,  although  we  do  not  accept  as  fact  the  myths 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  yet,  since  they  form  part  of  the 
history  of  humanity,  we  cannot  afford  to  remain  strangers 
to  the  religious  beliefs  of  those  on  whose  culture  in  many 
of  its  essential  features  our  own  is  founded. 

In  order  that  we  may  better  understand  national  belief  as 
an  inseparable  part  of  national  life  we  must  consider  Cultiis^ 
or  religious  ritual,  />.,  the  manner  in  which  the  gods 
were  adored.  In  antiquity  the  most  important  part  of 
worship  was  the  Sacrifice  which  was  offered  to  the  god  on 
the  altar  by  the  priest.  In  ancient  times,  incredible  as  it 
may  seem  to  us,  not  only  animals  and  fruits,  but  human 
beings  were  sacrificed,  just  as  they  are  now  among  savage 
tribes.  Abraham  was  prepared  to  offer  up  his  son  Isaac  in 
obedience  to  the  Divine  command,  and  Greek  legends 
from  various  places,  of  which  the  well-known  story  of  Iphi- 
genia  is  one,  make  it  quite  certain  that  the  cruel  custom  of 
human  sacrifice  existed,  although  it  fell  into  disuse  as  the 
Greeks  progressed  in  morality  and  refinement. 

Sacrifices  were  the  share  which  man  paid  to  the  gods  of 
those  gifts  first  received  from  them.^  They  were  therefore 
inseparable  from  primitive  worship,  which  was  founded  on 
the  supposition  that  the  gods  are  beings  like  to  men, 
and  demand  their  due  part  of  all  natural  produce.^  The 

® For  a later  theory  of  Sacrifice  see  W.  Robertson  Smith,  “ The 
Religion  of  the  Semites.” 


SACRIFICE 


husbandman  would  offer  harvested  corn,  the  herdsman  first- 
lings of  the  flock,  the  merchant  treasures  from  abroad  and 
the  warrior  spoils  won  in  the  field.  The  poet,  the  artist 
and  the  athlete  would  dedicate  their  prizes  in  the  temples 
and  shrines  of  those  gods  to  whom  they  owed  success. 

The  usual  places  of  worship  were  sacred  precincts,  enclos- 
ing temples,  altars  or  statues  of  the  gods.  Here  the 
worshippers  assembled,  and  by  means  of  the  priests  pre- 
sented their  offerings  and  prayers.  In  these  sanctuaries  the 
gods  were  specially  present,  therefore  the  worshippers  were 
enjoined  to  shun  all  evil  or  defiling  actions  and  to  purify 
themselves  by  expiatory  sacrifice  before  taking  part  in  the 
sacred  rites  of  worship. 

There  were  appropriate  and  special  gifts  to  each  god,  con- 
nected with  his  character  or  the  domain  of  his  activity. 
Victims  for  sacrifice  must  be  without  blemish.  They  were 
brought  to  the  altar  decked  with  sacred  fillets  and  garlands. 
Such  sacrificial  scenes  are  frequently  represented  in  sculpture 
and  on  vase  paintings. 

The  sacrifice  itself,  being  a holy  rite,  was  performed 
according  to  venerable  and  unalterable  custom,  but  not 
necessarily  by  a priest  or  priestess.  There  were,  however, 
priesthoods,  some  of  which  were  hereditary,  and  remained 
in  one  family  for  many  generations.  Such  was  the  priest- 
hood of  the  Eleusinian  Demeter,  in  the  family  of  the 
Eumolpidail 

The  customary  ritual  of  sacrifice  was  the  following  : — First 
a few  hairs  were  cut  from  the  forehead  of  the  victim  and 
thrown  on  the  fire  as  an  initiatory  offering  ; then  sacrificial 
meal  mixed  with  salt  was  strewn  between  the  beast’s  horns, 
and  he  was  slain,  amid  the  prayers  and  cries  of  the  wor- 
shippers. The  blood  was  poured  around  the  altar,  and 


* J.  Toepffer,  “ Attische  Genealogie.' 


8 


THE  GODS  OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY 


the  choicer  parts  of  the  entrails,  sprinkled  with  meal,  wine 
and  incense,  were  burned  upon  it.  All  the  flesh  that 
remained  was  consumed  at  a solemn  feast.  A sacrifice 
offered  to  a river-  or  sea-god  was  plunged  into  the  water. 
Victims  offered  to  the  underworld  gods  were  black  in  colour, 
and  the  sacrifice  was  performed  in  a pit  dug  in  the  ground. 

The  Romans  when  they  prayed  turned  their  faces  to  the 
north,  or,  if  they  were  in  a temple,  to  the  image  and  altar  of 
the  deity,  raising  their  hands  in  prayer  to  the  heavenly 
gods,  and  turning  them  down  in  addressing  the  underworld 
divinities.  Sometimes  they  would  kiss  the  mouth,  hands  or 
knees  of  the  statues  of  the  gods. 

As  great  religious  festivals  we  may  mention  the  Olympian, 
Pythian,  Nemean  and  Isthmian  Games,  in  the  celebration  of 
which  all  Greeks  had  a share.  While  the  more  important 
festivals  went  on  dissension  ceased,  and  there  was  peace  all 
over  Greek  soil. 

At  the  outset  of  our  study  we  are  met  by  the  question  : 
“ What  did  the  ancients  think  about  the  origin  of  the  Earth 
and  the  Universe  ? 

We  conceive  of  the  Universe  as  an  immense  whole,  whose 
limits  we  do  not  know,  containing  within  itself  all  created 
things,  and  of  our  Earth  as  a mere  speck  in  space,  one  of 
the  most  insignificant  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  ancients 
thought  that  the  Earth  was  the  centre  of  the  Universe,  and 
the  first  created  thing.  The  Earth,  however,  was  not  made  out 
of  nothing  ; from  all  time  Chaos  existed,  a confused,  formless 
mass  of  primitive  matter  shrouded  in  cloud  and  darkness, 
and  containing  the  germs  of  all  things  that  were  to  come 
into  being.  To  separate  this  homogeneous  mass  and  produce 
things  of  various  kinds,  a force  arose  called  by  philosophers 
Eros — Love.  By  his  influence  kindred  substances  were  united 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 


9 


and  substances  of  opposite  nature  were  separated.  Thus  all 
things  were  ordered  and  proportioned,  and  the  Earth  came 
into  being. 

“ It  was  Chaos  and  Night  at  the  first  and  the  blackness  of  darkness  and 
Hell’s  broad  border, 

Earth  was  not,  nor  air,  neither  heaven  ; when  in  depths  of  the  womb  of 
the  dark  without  order 

First  thing  first  born  of  the  black-plumed  Night  was  a wind-egg  hatched 
in  her  bosom, 

Whence  timely  with  seasons  revolving  again  sweet  Love  burst  out  as  a 
blossom. 

Gold  wings  gleaming  forth  of  his  back,  like  whirlwinds  gustily  turning. 

He,  after  his  wedlock  with  Chaos,  whose  wings  are  of  darkness,  in  Hell 
broad-burning. 

For  his  nestlings  begat  him  the  race  of  us  first,  and  upraised  us  to  light 
new  lighted. 

And  before  this  was  not  the  race  of  the  gods,  until  all  things  by  Love 
were  united.”  ^ 

The  ancients  did  not  know  that  the  Earth  was  shaped  like 
a ball.  They  thought  of  it  as  a flat  disc  or  shield,  firmly 
fixed,  and  surrounded  by  the  stream  of  Ocean,  a river  of 
unlimited  breadth,  into  which  flowed  all  the  waters  of  the 
Earth.  The  sky  was  a solid  vault  stretched  above  the  disc 
like  a pitched  tent,  and  resting  on  the  mountains  at  its  edge. 
The  space  between  the  Earth  and  the  sky  was  filled  by  air, 
clouds  and  ether,  and  in  this  space  the  Sun,  Moon  and 
Stars  moved. 

The  superior  gods  lived  in  the  airy  space  between  the 
Earth  and  the  sky,  and  their  seats  were  splendid  palaces  on 
the  mist-shrouded  top  of  Mount  Olympos.  Hence  the  twelve 
principal  gods  are  called  the  Olympians.  Their  names 
were  : Zeus^  Hera^  Hermes^  Athene^  Apollo^  Artemis,^  Ares^ 
Aphrodite^  Hephaistos^  Hestia^  Poseidon  and  Demeter. 


* Aristophanes,  “ Aves,”  693.  Trans.  A.  C.  Swinburne. 


lO 


THE  GODS  OF  CLASSIC  ANTIQUITY 


Primitive  belief  regarded  Mount  Olympos  as  the  centre  ol 
the  Earth’s  surface,  and  from  its  heights,  it  was  supposed, 
the  immortals  could  from  time  to  time  descend  and  mix 
with  men  ; but  a later  age  removed  the  dwelling  of  the  gods 
above  the  sky-vault,  and  supposed  that  they  viewed  the 
Earth  and  man’s  doings  through  an  opening  near  the  fortress 
of  Zeus.  According  to  this  view,  the  word  Olympos  is  often 
used  to  mean  Heaven,  or  the  dwelling  of  the  gods.  The 
counterpart  of  Olympos  was  Hades,  a broad,  vaulted  space 
far  down  under  the  surface  of  the  Earth,  the  dwelling  of  the 
departed. 

The  peoples  of  Greece  and  Rome,  although  they  belonged 
to  the  same  original  stock,  existed  for  centuries  as  separate 
and  independent  races,  holding  little  communication  with, 
and  exercising  little  influence  on  each  other.  In  their 
mythology  and  ritual,  therefore,  we  shall  find  many  differ- 
ences, as  well  as  points  of  correspondence. 

The  early  Romans  were  a people  of  herdsmen  and 
husbandmen,  leading  quiet,  uneventful  lives  in  a country 
comparatively  limited  in  extent.  Their  ritual  was  simple, 
and  their  religious  belief  uniform.  The  Greeks,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  divided  into  a number  of  separate  tribes, 
and  lived  in  detached  communities,  carrying  on  different 
occupations.  Hence  arose  great  variety  of  religious  belief 
among  them.  The  gods  of  the  inland  mountain  region  of 
Arkadia,^  for  instance,  where  the  livelihood  of  the  inhabi- 
tants depended  on  pasture-land,  were  other  than  those  of  the 
coast  and  islands,  where  the  principal  occupations  were  fish- 
ing,  sailing,  and  trading. 

Many  of  the  Greek  legends  originally  belonged  to  separate 
tribes,  and  became  common  property  of  the  nation  by  means 


^ j Immerwahr,  “ My  then  und  Kulte  Arkadiens.” 

|h.  D.  Muller,  “ Mythologie  der  griechischen  Stamme.' 


GREEK  AAD  ROMAN  LEGENDS 


1 1 


of  the  poets  ; others  were  invented  by  the  poets,  and  had 
little  hold  on  popular  belief,  while  others,  again,  sprang  from 
the  ritual  of  Oriental  peoples  and  were  adopted  by  the  ^ 
Greeks. 

It  is  commonly  and  most  erroneously  supposed  that  the 
belief  of  the  Greeks  was  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Romans.  Now  the  Roman  authors  and  poets  who  handed 
these  legends  down  to  us,  wrote  at  a time  when  Greek  culture 
had  become  part  of  Roman  life,  and  from  Greek  culture 
Greek  religion  was  inseparable.  Hence  the  mythology  we 
find  in  Latin  literature  is  Greek,  derived  from  Greek  autho- 
rities and  Greek  models.  The  names  of  the  gods  and  heroes 
are  given  in  Latin  form,  or  myths  of  Greek  gods  and  heroes 
are  ascribed  to  Latin  divinities  of  similar  character. 

Literature  gives  very  little  information  about  ancient 
Roman  ritual,  but  the  few  notices  there  are  show  that  it 
remained  for  the  most  part  uninfluenced  by  Greek  modes  of 
worship,  and  preserved  its  traditions  down  to  a late  period. 

The  present  work  will  describe  the  fabric  of  mythology  as 
it  was  completed  by  the  poets,  and  will  include  many  legends 
which  found  no  place  in  popular  belief. 

The  ancients  conceived  of  the  Universe  not  as  existing  in 
its  present  state  from  the  beginning,  but  as  taking  shape 
gradually,  after  long  conflicts  between  the  opposed  forces  of 
Nature  struggling  for  the  mastery.  While  the  order  of  the 
Universe  was  being  formed,  three  great  dynasties  of  gods 
occupied  in  succession  the  throne  of  universal  power.  At 
the  head  of  the  first  dynasty  stood  Oiu^anos^  his  son  Kronos 
followed  him  as  ruler  of  the  second,  and  to  him  again  suc- 
ceeded, as  leader  of  the  youngest  and  most  perfect  dynasty, 
his  son  Zens.  What  ideas  were  current  about  this  succession 
of  divine  rulers  will  be  the  subject  of  our  first  chapter. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  GODS. 

( Theogony^ 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

...  Theogony. 

...  Bibliotheke. 

...  Die  Giganten  und  Titanen  in  der  antiken  Sage  und 
Kunst. 

...  Article,  “ Mythology  ” in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
I.  OURANOS. 

OuRx\NOS  represents  Heaven,  or  the  sky.  With  him,  as  the 
Greek  poets  tell  us,  began  the  first  race  of  gods.  He  was 
married  to  Gaia,  the  Earth,  his  mother,  and  from  this  union 
sprang  the  Titans^  Hekatoncheires^  and  Kyklopes,  The 
Titmts^  called  Ouranidai  after  their  father,  were  six  in 
number,  Koios^  Kreios^  Hyperion^  Japetos^  Okeanos  and 
Kronos,  They  had  six  sisters  : Theia^  Rhea^  Mnemosyne^ 
Phoibe^  Tethys  and  Themis.  These  divinities,  represented 
in  pairs  as  male  and  female,  are  the  primitive  forces  of 
nature,  which  were  at  work  when  the  world  came  into  being. 

All  these  superhuman  beings  were  represented  as  mon- 
strous giants.  Ouranos,  who  feared  to  lose  his  kingdom 
by  their  violence,  thrust  them  down  to  Tartaros,  and  kept 


Hesiod, 

Apollodoros,  ... 
Mayer,  Maximilian 

Lang,  Andrew 


OUR  A NOS  AND  ICRONOS 


13 


I] 

them  prisoners.  His  consort  Gaia,  pitying  the  hard  fate  of 
her  children,  armed  Kronos  with  a reaping-hook,  which  she 
herself  had  made,  and  with  this  weapon  Kronos  wounded 
Ouranos  and  freed  the  Titans  from  the  underworld.  The 
Titans,  after  the  fall  of  their  father,  wedded  their  sisters  and  left 
a numerous  offspring  of  gods.  TJie  race  was  further  increased 
by  the  Gtgantes  * (giants),  sometimes  represented  in  art  as 
snake-tailed,  who  sprang  from  the  drops  of  Ouranos’  blood, 
by  the  Melian  Nymphs^  t.e,^  the  nymphs  of  the  ash  trees  from 
which  war-lances  were  made,  and  by  the  Erinyes^  (Tlsiphone^ 
Megaira^  and  Alekto\  who  exacted  a blood  penalty  for  the 
wrong  done  their  father,  and  pursued  criminals  with  the 
torments  of  retributive  justice.  All  these  are  divinities  of 
Greece.  The  Romans  believed  in  similar  superhuman  beings^ 
namely  the  Larvae^  who  would  not  even  let  the  dead  rest  in 
peace  if  their  sins  had  not  been  expiated.  Such  legends 
show  how  much  the  ancients  feared  the  righteous  wrath  of 
the  deities  of  the  lower  world. 

2.  Kronos. 

Kronosp  the  meaning  of  whose  name  is  uncertain,  was  a 
son  of  Ouranos.  He  succeeded  to  his  father’s  throne,  and 
married  Rhea^  his  sister,  who  bore  him  three  daughters, 
Hestia^  Demeter  and  Hera^  and  three  sons,  A'ides^  Poseidon 
and  Zeus.  Kronos  was  warned  by  an  oracle  that  as  he  had 
dethroned  his  father,  he,  too,  should  be  dethroned  by  his 
sons.  He  therefore  swallowed  his  five  elder  children.  Then 
Rhea  brought  forth  a sixth  child,  Zeus,3  the  most  beautiful 
of  all.  To  secure  the  safety  of  the  boy,  she  gave  her  consort 


* Hesiod,  “ Theogonia,”  1.  185. 
® Ibid.,  1.  137. 

3 Ibid.,  1.  470. 


14 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  GODS 


[chap. 


a stone,  wrapped  in  swaddling  bands  like  a new-born  child, 
and  he  swallowed  it  in  the  belief  that  he  was  devouring 
his  youngest  son. 

When  Rhea  had  thus  deceived  her  husband,  she  caused 
Zeus,  the  new-born  child,  to  be  taken  to  the  island  of  Kreta^ 
there  to  be  hidden  in  a grotto  of  Mount  Dikie,  The 
beasts  of  the  forest  joined  the  nymphs  in  tending  the  young 
god  ; bees  gathered  honey  for  him  ; a strong  eagle  brought 
him  ambrosia,  and  the  goat  Amaltheia  ^ fed  him  with  her 
milk.  That  Kronos  might  not  hear  the  crying  of  the  child, 
the  K^uretes^  servants  of  Rhea,  his  attendants,  danced  wildly 
round  him  and  made  a ceaseless  noise  with  their  swords  and 
shields.  Such  customs  were  not  uncommon  in  antiquity,  and 
were  supposed  to  ward  off  hurtful  influences,  the  heat  of  the 
dog-days  in  summer,  for  instance,  or  baneful  effects  caused  by 
eclipses  of  the  moon.  In  more  modern  time  customs  of 
this  kind  were  to  be  found  in  Asia  Minor,  and  even  at  the 
present  day  bells  are  rung  during  a thunder-storm  in  some 
mountain  districts,  as  the  Tyrol. 

When  Zeus  was  grown,  he  conspired  with  Rhea,  and 
forced  his  father  to  restore  the  children  whom  he  had 
swallowed.  With  the  help  of  his  brothers  Zeus  then 
hurled  Kronos  from  the  throne  and  took  his  place.  And 
now  began  the  long  and  violent  War  of  the  Gods  and 
Titans. 

For  the  Titans,  sons  of  Ouranos,  were  not  content  with  the 
change.  They  revolted  against  Zeus,  and  although  the  new 
ruler  had  the  best  of  the  strife,  it  was  a long  time  before  it 
was  over.  The  legend  gives  Thessaly  as  the  place  where  this 
terrible  war  between  Ouranidai  and  Kronidai  was  waged. 
On  Olympos^  the  highest  mountain  of  Greece,  was  the  throne 


* Apollodorus  Ath.  I.  6. 


r.]  WAR  OF  OURANIDAl  AND  KRONIDAI  15 

of  Zeus  and  his  fellows.  There  dwelt  Styx^  daughter  of 
Okeanos,  with  her  strong  children,  Zelos^  Nike^  Kratos  and 
Bia.  She  was  made  a goddess  by  Zeus  as  a reward  for  her 
help,  and  henceforth  the  Immortals  swore  their  unalterable 
oath  by  her.  On  Mount  Othrys,  opposite,  lived  the  Titans, 
under  the  leadership  of  Japetos.  Zeus,  being  hard  pressed, 
loosed  the  Hekatoncheires  and  Kyklopes  who  had  been 
chained  in  the  underworld  ; they  brought  with  them  their 
terrible  weapons,  lightning,  thunder  and  the  destructive 


Fig.  I.  Zeus-group  from  the  Altar-frieze  of  Pergamon. 

earthquake,  and  Zeus  succeeded  at  last,  by  their  aid,  in 
mastering  the  enemy.^  When  Zeus  had  subdued  the  Oura- 
nidai,  the  Hekatoncheires  overwhelmed  them  with  huge 
masses  of  rock,  and  they  have  lain  ever  since  far  below  the 
kingdom  of  Aides,  imprisoned  in  cold  and  darkness  behind  a 
brazen  wall,  and  guarded  by  Hekate. 

Typhon  (or  Typhoeus)^  a frightful  monster,  offspring  of 
Gaia  and  Tartaros,  whose  strength  was  irresistible,  and  whose 


* Homer,  Iliad,  xiv.  279. 


i6 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  GODS 


[chap. 


breath  was  like  the  whirlwind,  succumbed  to  the  thunderbolt 
of  Zeus,  and  was  sent  to  eternal  exile.  (Fig.  i.) 

The  wars  with  the  giants,  and  the  story  of  how  Herakles 
helped  to  defend  Olympos,  were  favourite  subjects  of  ancient 
poets  and  artists,  but  never  became  an  essential  part  of  Greek 
religion. 

Kronos  represents  the  order  of  Nature.  His  children 
represent  various  natural  forces,  both  formative  and  de- 
structive. Out  of  the  strife  of  these  powers  comes  the  new 
order  of  things,  whose  representative  is  Zeus.  The  older  and 
physically  stronger  gods  must  be  displaced  by  the  younger 
and  craftier. 

The  legend  of  Zeus’  birth  and  secret  tendance  was  to  be 
found  in  its  fullest  and  most  popular  form  at  Kreta  (or 
Crete), ^ a centre  of  ancient  civilization,  where  the  worship  of 
Kronos,  too,  was  at  home.  Kronos  was  worshipped  in  Crete 
not  as  the  gloomy  god  who  swallowed  his  own  children,  but 
as  the  ripener  and  accomplisher,  the  god  of  harvest,  who 
gives  prosperity  and  wealth,  happiness  and  good  luck. 
Therefore  his  festivals,  the  Kronia,  and  the  corresponding 
Italian  Saturnalia  became,  like  our  harvest -homes,  occasions 
of  the  most  unbridled  jollity. 

3.  Rhea  (Kybele). 

Rhea  was  wife  of  Kronos,  and  mother  of  Aides,  Poseidon, 
Zeus,  Hestia,  Demeter  and  Hera.  Her  worship  was  con- 
siderably overshadowed  by  that  of  the  other  gods,  and  in 
very  early  times  the  Eastern  goddess  Kybele  shared  her 
honours.  Deep  in  the  tangle  of  the  ancient  forest  Rhea  sat 
on  her  throne,  surrounded  by  lions,  panthers  arid  other 

* For  recent  excavations  in  the  cave  of  Zeus  in  Crete  see  “ American 
Journal  of  Archaeology,”  vol.  hi.  p.  174,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  480 ; and  “ Museo 
Italiano  di  Antichita,”  1887-90. 


RllEA-KVBELE 


17 


savage  beasts.  Her  followers  practised  wild  enthusiastic 
rites  in  her  honour  as  mother  of  Nature.  Her  worship 
was  specially  developed  among  the  Phrygians,  an  ancient 
and  highly-civilized  people  of  Asia  Minor  ; to  them  she 
was  not  merely  the  mother  of  the  gods,  but  teacher  of 
agriculture  and  vine-dressing,*and  founder  of  the  first  cities. 
In  her  last  aspect  she  wears  a mural  crown  with  battle- 
ments. 

Countless  legends  are  connected  with  the  name  of  Rhea- 
Kybele.  As  Rhea,  she  was  daughter  of  Ouranos  and  Gaia, 
(heaven  and  earth).  As  Kybele,  she  was  daughter  of  a 
Phrygian  prince  named  Maion^  who,  being  angry  because 
no  son  was  born  to  him,  exposed  her  on  the  mountains  soon 
after  her  birth.  She  was  suckled  by  wild  beasts,  until  she 
was  found  by  some  herdsmen,  who  brought  her  up.  Her 
beauty  and  wisdom  won  the  love  of  all  the  people,  and  when 
she  was  grown,  her  father  acknowledged  her,  and  took  her  to 
his  home.  She  was  beloved  by  the  youth  Attis^  and  at  this 
Maion  was  so  enraged  that  he  had  Attis  put  to  death.  The 
agony  of  Kybele  bordered  on  madness  ; she  sought  solitude, 
and  passed  her  days  under  a pine  tree,  into  which  she  thought 
her  lover  had  been  transforrned.  While  thus  separated  from 
human  kind,  she  is  said  to  have  invented  tambourines,  cym- 
bals, and  lutes  of  a peculiar  kind,  and  to  have  made  a mad 
and  noisy  progress  through  the  country,  accompanied  by  the 
Silen  Marsyas.  She  could  tame  the  strongest  and  most 
savage  beast,  the  lion.  The  pine  tree  was  specially  sacred  to 
her,  and  the  violet  too,  the  messenger  of  spring,  sprung  from 
the  blood  of  slaughtered  Attis. 

In  the  ritual  of  her  service  appear  many  features  specially 
developed  in  Asia  Minor.  Wild  music,  cries  of  excitement 
and  flaming  torches,  accompanied  the  priests  and  their 
inspired  followers  as  they  trooped  through  woods  and  over 

3 


i8 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  GODS 


[chap. 'i. 


mountains.  These  enthusiasts  even  thought  to  honour  the 
goddess  by  wounding  and  mutilating  themselves  in  remem- 
brance of  the  pain  which  Rhea  suffered,  when  she  saw  her 
beloved  children  devoured  by  their  father,  or  of  Kybele’s 
grief  at  the  death  of  Attis.^ 

The  worship  of  Kybele,  which  at  a later  time  resolved 
itself  almost  entirely  into  that  of  Dionysos,  was  most  wide- 
spread in  Asia  Minor.  Near  Pessinus  in  Phrygia  a cave  was 
shown  as  the  most  ancient  pnctuary  of  the  goddess. 

The  Megalesia,  a Roman  feast  in  which  only  women  took 
part,  was  held  in  her  honour. 


^ See  Frazer’s  “ Golden  Bough.” 


CHAPTER  TI. 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS. 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

Hesiod,  ...  ...  ...  Works  and  Days. 

Mannhardt,  L.  Wilhelm...  Mythologische  Forschiingen,  ch.  ii.  (for  Bou- 
phonia). 

Overbeck,  Johannes  ...  Gallerie  heroischer  Bildwerke  der  alien  Kunst. 

and 

Atlas  der  griechischen  Kunstmythologie. 
Mueller,  PI.  D.  ...  ...  Ueber  den  Zeus  Lykaios. 

Immerwahr,  ...  ...  My  then  und  Kiilte  Arkadiens. 

I.  Zeus  (Jupiter). 

Zeus  was  god  of  the  sky  and  ruler  of  all  the  other  gods.  His 
numerous  names  are  derived  some  from  the  places  where 
his  cult  was  localized,  and  some  from  different  aspects  of  his 
character.  In  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  those  of  the  latter  kind 
frequently  occur  ; such  are  : “ Cloud-veiled  OneJ^  Cloud- 
compeller,”  “Thunderer,”  “ Mighty  Thunderer,”  “ Supreme 
Lord,”  “ Father  of  Gods  and  Men.”  The  name  Kronion,  or 
Kronides,  is  given  to  him  as  son  and  successor  of  Kronos, 
and  is  a title  of  great  reverence.  (Fig.  2.) 

Zeus  grew  and  throve  under  the  care  of  the  nymphs,  his 
nurses,  and  nourished  by  the  milk  of  the  goat  Amaltheia^ 


20 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


whom  he  afterwards  placed  in  the  constellation  of  the 


Fig.  2.  Jupiter  Verospi  {Vatican,  Rome). 

Waggoner,  giving  her  the  name  of  Capella.  He  soon 


THE  AGES  OF  MAM 


21 


II.] 


showed  remarkable  powers  of  wisdom  and  understanding. 
^ While  still  a youth  he  hurled  Kronos  from  his  throne, 
conquered  the  Titans  and  giants,  and  thus  established  his 
power  for  ever.  When  he  drew  lots  with  his  brothers  for 
the  lordship  of  the  world,  there  fell  to  him  the  rule  of 
Heaven,  to  Poseidon  that  of  the  sea  and  all  waters,  and  to 
Aides  that  of  the  underworld,  while  the  earth  remained 
common  property  of  all  three.  The  supremacy  of  Zeus  Avas 
acknowledged  by  the  other  two  in  their  OAvn  domains,  for 
the  old  myths  say  that  Zeus  held  sway  over  land,  sea,  and 
under  the  earth.  Zeus  could  not  change  the  order  of  the 
universe,  fixed  by  himself,  nor  could  he  control  Fate.  His 
most  important  function  was  to  protect  and  control  human 
life  and  destiny,  and  to  portion  out  good  or  evil  to  man. 
We  must  now  relate  what  the  ancients  believed  about  the 
origin  and  growth  of  the  human  race. 

The  Ages  of  Man.* 

In  the  reign  of  Kronos  a race  of  man  existed,  the  most 
perfect  of  all.  As  gold  is  the  noblest  metal,  the  period  of 
this  race  was  called  the  Golden  Age.  Men  enjoyed 
eternal  youth,  Avithout  care  or  grief  ; they  were  like  the 
immortals,  and  consorted  Avith  them  on  familiar  terms.  Yet 
they  were  subject  to  death,  Avhich  came  to  them  as  a gentle 
sleep.  When  this  race  died  out,  Zeus  transformed  them  into 
beneficent  spirits,  to  protect  men  in  distress  and  danger, 
bestoAv  riches  on  the  upright,  and  check  the  impious  in  their 
crimes. 

The  men  of  the  second,  or  Silver  Age,  were  much  less 
perfect.  They  Avere  laAvless  and  violent,  and  would  neither 

* ^schylus,  “ Prometheus  Vinctus.” 

2 I Hesiod,  “Works  and  Days,”  no. 

I Erwin  Rhode,  “ Psyche.” 


22 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


keep  peace  among  themselv^es  nor  worship  the  gods.  There- 
fore they  were  swept  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  After  death 
they  existed  as  underworld  spirits,  but  were  not  immortal, 
and  were  never  translated  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest. 

The  men  of  the  Brazen  Age  were  created  by  Zeus  out  of 
the  ash  tree.  They  were  huge  in  stature  and  of  tremendous 
strength,  and  in  their  unbounded  insolence  and  violence 
they  slew  each  other,  until  Zeus  destroyed  them  by  a flood. 

Deukalion  and  Pyrrha  were  the  only  survivors.  They 
took  refuge  from  the  waters  on  the  top  of  Mount  Parnassos, 
and  at  the  command  of  the  gods  called  a new  race  into  being 
by  throwing  stones  behind  them.  These  stones  became  men, 
and  thus  Deukalion  and  Pyrrha  were  ancestors  of  the  fourth 
race,  men  of  the  Iron  Age,  who  still  inhabit  the  earth.  No 
longer,  as  in  the  Golden  Age,  carelessly  enjoying  the  rich  gifts 
of  the  gods,  nor,  like  the  men  of  the  Silver  Age,  boasting  of 
gigantic  strength,  the  men  of  to-day  with  toil  and  pains 
wring  a livelihood  from  the  soil,  and  are  continually  op- 
pressed by  trouble  and  care.  From  the  earlier  races  they 
have  received  as  a heritage  only  strife  and  violence. 

According  to  another  legend,  Prometheus  made  the  first 
man  from  a lump  of  earth  and  taught  them  all  the  arts. 

The  first  wife  of  Zeus  was  Metis  (Prudence),  a daughter  of 
Okeanos.  Fate  had  prophesied  to  Zeus  that  his  offspring 
should  be  mightier  than  himself.  To  prevent  this  he 
swallowed  Metis.  Then  from  his  head  sprang  his  daughter, 
Pallas  Athene^  in  full  armour.  On  the  Acropolis  of  Athens 
in  one  pediment  of  the  Parthenon,  the  most  famous  of  all 
the  temples  of  Athene,  this  event  was  represented  in 
sculpture.^ 

The  true  lawful  consort  of  Zeus  was  Hera^  his  sister,  the 

* The  less  important  figures  of  this  peclimental  group  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 


II.] 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  ZEUS 


23 


great  queen  of  Heaven.  Long  did  she  resist  his  wooing,  but 
at  last  she  yielded,  and  the  nuptials  were  solemnized.  To 
their  brilliant  wedding  feast  were  invited  all  the  gods  of 
Heaven  and  all  the  underworld  divinities.  Hera  bore  to  her 
husband  Hehe^  Ares  and  Hephaistos,  Zeus  did  not  always 
remain  faithful  to  this  marriage  with  his  sister,  but  formed 
other  unions  with  goddesses  and  mortal  women.  Persephone 
was  his  offspring  by  Demeter  ^ At  olio  and  Artemis  by  LetOj 
the  Muses  by  Mnemosyne^  Dionysos  by  Semele^  Hermes  by 
Maia  and  Her  aides  by  Alkmene.  This  faithlessness  of 
Zeus,  which  seems  so  unworthy  of  the  ruler  of  the  Universe, 
is  easily  explained  by  the  various  legends  which  arose  inde- 
pendently of  each  other  in  different  countries.  In  each  of 
these  legends  Zeus  had  only  one  wife,  and  remained  faithful  to 
her,  and  it  was  only  after  the  poets  had  united  the  stories,  as  if 
of  equal  authority,  that  the  view  which  is  more  familiar  to 
us  arose. ^ 

To  the  Greeks  Zeus  was  the  Supreme  Being,  Father  of  Gods 
and  Men,  Ruler  and  Preserver  of  the  Universe,  and  Source  of 
Wisdom  and  Justice.  Zeus  ordered  the  alternation  of  day  and 
night,  and  the  revolution  of  the  seasons  ; he  could  make  the 
winds  blow,  gather  and  disperse  the  clouds,  and  shower 
fertilizing  rain  on  the  young  vegetation.  He  watched  over 
the  law  and  order  of  the  state,  protected  kings  in  the  exercise 
of  their  authority,  and  ruled  human  society,  rewarding 
faithfulness,  and  punishing  treachery  and  cruelty.  He  was 
“ Father  of  Men  and  Immortals.”  The  poorest  and  most 
abandoned  might  rely  on  his  care,  and  the  homeless  beggar 
could  claim  his  powerful  protection. ^ He  guarded  travellers, 
and  took  special  note  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  duties  of 
hospitality. 


' J.  Overbeck,  “ Kimstmythologie.” 
^ 0(1.  vi.  208. 


24 


lllE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


Two  mythological  stories  wiii  illustrate  hoAV  Zeus  ruled  the 
earth  : Philemon  and  Baucis^  ^ a humble  wedded  pair,  well 
stricken  in  years,  lived  in  Phrygia  in  unbroken  harmony 
and  in  pious  worship  of  the  gods.  Zeus,  who  often  visited 
the  earth  disguised  in  human  forrn,  came  one  day,  with 
Hermes  as  his  companion,  to  the  cottage  of  these  poor 
people.  Philemon  and  Baucis  welcomed  the  strangers 
kindly,  led  them  into  their  cottage,  and  set  food  before 
them,  the  best  they  could  give.  Zeus  was  touched  by  this 
good-natured  hospitality,  and  the  more  because  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  country  were  hard-hearted  and  careless 
of  the  gods.  He  resolved  to  plague  these  evil  men  with  a 
grievous  flood,  but  to  preserve  Philemon  and  Baucis,  and 
reward  them  in  a special  manner.  Therefore,  after  reveal- 
ing himself  to  the  astonished  pair,  he  commanded  a great 
flood  to  cover  the  land.  Then  he  transformed  the  old 
people’s  cottage,  which  stood  upon  a hill,  into  a magnificent 
temple,  established  Philemon  in  it  as  priest,  and  Baucis  as 
priestess,  and  promised  that  when  their  life  was  over  they 
should  die  together.  When,  at  last,  death  came  to  them, 
Zeus  changed  them  into  an  oak  and  a lime,  growing  close 
together. 

Lykaon^  ^ an  Arcadian  prince,  had  fifty  sons,  who  had 
brought  savage  cruelty  to  such  a pass  that  they  slew  every 
traveller  who  fell  into  their  hands.  Zeus  once  visited  them 
in  disguise,  and  they  attempted  to  take  his  life.  When  he 
told  them  that  he  was  a god  they  would  not  believe  it,  and 
Lykaon,  to  put  him  to  the  proof,  secretly  slaughtered  an 
innocent  child,  and  set  the  horrid  meal  before  him.  Zeus 
at  once  discovered  the  crime,  and  to  punish  Lykaon  and  his 
sons  for  their  bloodthirsty  cruelty  and  impiety,  he  changed 

* Ovid,  “ Mclam.”  viii.  621-724. 

^ H.  D.  Mueller,  “Ueber  den  Zeus  Lykaios.” 


II.] 


OL  YMPIAN  GAMPS 


25 


them  into  ravening  wolves,  and  burned  their  palace  to  the 
ground. 

Zeus  was  honoured  as  supreme  deity  by  all  Greek  races 
alike,  and  all  ascribed  to  him  power  and  authority,  such  as 
no  other  god  possessed.  He  knew  the  future  as  the  present, 
and  at  Dodona  in  Epirus  stood  a sacred  oak  tree,  whose 
leaves,  by  their  rustling,  revealed  his  will  to  men.  In  the 
sacred  grotto  of  Mount  Ida  in  Crete  was  another  of  his 
oracles.  The  worship  of  Zeus  was  diligently  practised  all 
through  Greece.  On  the  citadel  of  Athens  there  was  a 
precinct  of  the  god,  and  there  the  milder  sacrificial  rites 
instituted  by  Kekrops  were  kept  up  in  his  honour.  His 
most  splendid  temple  was  at  Elis,  in  the  sacred  precincts 
of  Olympia,^  and  there  might  be  seen  the  gold-ivory  statue 
made  by  Pheidias,  and  reckoned  among  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  Ancient  authors  say  that  the  majesty  of  the 
god  was  so  perfectly  embodied  in  this  work  of  art,  that  an 
adequate  description  in  words  was  impossible.  There  was  in 
later  days  a temple  of  Zeus  in  almost  every  town  of  Greece. 

In  the  month  Hekatombeion  (July)  of  every  fourth  year, 
on  the  great  plain  of  Olympia,  were  celebrated  in  honour  of 
Zeus  the  Olympian  Games,  the  greatest,  most  solemn  and 
most  famous  of  the  four  great  national  Games  of  Greece. 
The  scene  of  the  festival  was  the  middle  of  the  plain,  where, 
among  temples  and  rich  treasuries,  ^ stood  the  great  altar  of 
Zeus.  Here  the  festal  crowd  paid  common  worship  by 
sacrifice  and  prayer  to  the  supreme  deity  of  the  Hellenes. 
The  competitors  in  the  Games  did  not  strive  for  gold  or  silver  : 
a simple  olive  wreath  was  the  prize.  During  the  festival 
quarrels  were  laid  aside.  Embassies  attended  from  all  parts 


* Adolph  Boetticher,  “ Olympia. 
2 Ibid.  p.  49. 


2.6 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


of  the  mainland  of  Greece,  from  the  islands,  and  from  the 
colonies  in  Asia  and  Italy.  After  a great  sacrifice  to  Zeus 
and  a brilliant  procession,  the  Games  began.  There  were 
contests  of  men  and  boys  in  running,  jumping,  quoit  throw- 
ing, wrestling  and  boxing,  then  races  of  two-horse  and  four- 
horse  chariots,  and  afterwards  the  crowning  contest  in  poetry 
and  music.  At  the  end  all  joined  in  a joyous  banquet. 

Zeus  was  worshipped  at  Olympia  as  the  god  of  physical 
courage  and  strength,  on  which  the  Greeks  laid  so  much 
stress.  Herakles,  his  son,  the  prototype  of  manly  vigour, 
was  supposed  to  have  instituted  these  Games. 

The  Nemean  Games,  also  a tribute  to  the  glory  of  Zeus, 
were  never  so  widely  popular  as  those  of  Olympia.  They 
were  celebrated  in  the  valley  of  Nemea,  where  Herakles  had 
slain  the  famous  lion. 

Jupiter  (Optimus  Maximus)  was  not  less  honoured  among 
the  Romans  than  Zeus  among  the  Greeks.  Of  all  his 
temples  in  Rome,  that  on  the  Capitol  was  the  finest  and 
richest  in  costly  votive  gifts.  Hence  he  was  called  Capitolinus. 
On  the  Capitol  was  a colossal  bronze  statue  of  the  god,  cast 
out  of  the  spoils  of  the  Samnite  sacred  legion.  Jupiter  has 
various  names,  derived  from  the  different  aspects  of  his 
divinity,  or  from  the  countries  and  towns  where  he  was 
worshipped. 

The  Roman  or  Great  Games  in  honour  of  Jupiter  were 
instituted  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  were  celebrated  in 
September  by  competitions  and  public  banquets. 

The  principal  sacrifices  to  Zeus  consisted  of  oxen.  When 
a hundred  oxen  were  offered  the  sacrifice  was  called  a heka- 
tomb.  Among  trees,  the  oak  and  the  olive  were  sacred  to 
him  ; among  birds,  the  eagle,  which  often  appears  as  a 
symbol  of  his  royalty.  There  were  many  representations  of 
Zeus  in  plastic  art.  Among  the  most  famous  statues  were 


II.] 


HERA 


27 


those  of  Phcidias  and  Lysippos.  The  most  usual  type  shows 
him  as  a bearded  man  with  flowing  hair,  throned  upon  a 
high  seat,  holding  in  his  hand  the  thunderbolt  or  the 
sceptre,  looking  down  on  the  spectator  with  a countenance 
full  of  calm  grave  benevolence.  (See  Plate  I.)  Sometimes 
the  eagle  stands  beside  him.  As  conqueror  of  the  giants, 
Zeus  also  appears  standing  on  a chariot. 


2.  Hera  (Juno).^ 

Hera  was  the  daughter  of  Kronos  and  Rhea,  the  sister  and 
wife  of  Zeus.  She  shared  the  throne  and  the  counsels  of 
Zeus,  and  was  revered  by  all  the  other  gods.  Like  her 
husband,  she  could  command  clouds  and  lightning.  Iris 
was  her  messenger  to  mortals,  as  Hermes  was  for  Zeus. 
Hera  was  the  special  patroness  of  marriage,  and  bore 
the  names  G amelia  {goddess  of  bridal)^  Zygia  {of  the 
ho7id)j  Teleia  {the  accomplisher).  The  marriage  of  Zeus  and 
Hera  signifies  the  fertility  of  nature.  In  spring,  when  vegeta- 
tion awakes,  the  sacred  espousals  * of  the  heavenly  pair  were 
commemorated.  Festal  processions  and  solemn  sacrifices  took 
place,  to  which  the  participants  came  adorned  with  flowers 
and  wreaths.  3 

As  queen  and  faithful  wedded  wife,  Hera  insisted  on  due 
reverence  and  chaste  morals  both  among  gods  and  men. 
But  Zeus  gave  her  frequent  cause  for  jealousy,  and  gods  and 
men  often  broke  the  law  of  whose  sanctity  she  was  the 
guardian.  Hence  she  appears  in  the  Iliad  and  other  poems 


* J.  Overbeck,  “Kimstmythologie.” 

2 /Diodorus  Siculus,  bk.  v.  ch.  iv. 

Ij.  G.  Frazer,  “Golden  Bough,’’  i.  278. 

3 Plutarch,  Fragment  IX.  (for  Daedala). 


28 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


as  a proud,  uncompromising,  jealous  and  revengeful  goddess, 
cruelly  persecuting  the  favourites  of  Zeus. 

She  sent  a dragon  to  torment  Leto  ceaselessly,  changed  /o, 
daughter  of  Inachus,  into  a cow,  lynx^  daughter  of  Pan,  into 
a bird,  and  Galanthis^  Alkmene’s  confidant,  into  a weasel. 
She  always  bore  a grudge  against  the  children  born  to  Zeus, 
as  Herakles  knew  to  his  cost  all  his  life.  When  Zeus  became 
exasperated  by  his  consort’s  doings,  he  treated  her  severely, 
even  threatening  her  with  corporal  chastisement.  Once, 
as  a punishment  for  her  persecution  of  Herakles,  he  hung 
her  down  from  Heaven  with  golden  chains  on  her  hands, 
and  heavy  anvils  attached  to  her  feet.  ^ 

But  these  are  only  single  instances.  The  attitude  of  Zeus 
to  Hera  is  usually  one  of  love  and  reverence,  and  the  other 
gods,  assembled  in  the  palace  of  Zeus  at  feast  or  council,  do 
her  homage  as  queen  and  lady  of  Heaven.  Hera’s  severity 
often  became  cruelty  and  harshness.  She  flung  Side  into 
Tartaros  for  having  dared  to  vaunt  her  own  beauty  above 
that  of  the  queen,  who  had  stood  with  Pallas  and  Aphrodite 
before  Paris  ; and  when  Paris  gave  to  Aphrodite  the  prize 
of  beauty,  Hera  revenged  herself  on  the  city  of  Troy,  and 
helped  the  Greeks,  both  by  force  and  stratagem,  in  their  war 
against  it. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  women,  especially,  were  devoted 
to  the  worship  of  Hera.  The  Heraion,  ^ the  oldest  temple 
in  Olympia,  was  dedicated  to  her,  and  at  the  great  Games  a 
race  was  run  by* *  young  girls  in  her  honour. 

The  Charites  and  Horai  were  attendants  of  Hera,  and 
Iris  her  special  hand-maid.  Among  animals,  the  peacock 
was  sacred  to  her  because  of  his  pride  and  splendour,  in 
Italy  the  goose  and  the  cuckoo,  the  last  because  he  is  the 

’ Iliad,  XV.  14. 

* A.  Boetticher,  “ Olympia.” 


KERA. 

(villa  LUDOVISI,  ROME.) 


II.] 


JUNO 


29 


harbinger  of  spring,  the  season  when  Hera  celebrated  her 
marriage  with  Zeus.  In  Rome  there  were  several  temples  to 
/tmo  (Lucina).  She  was  worshipped  on  the  first  day  of 
each  month,  but  especially  in  June,  as  the  goddess  presiding 


Fig.  3.  Hera  (Vatican, 


over  birth.  This  was  the  Feast  of  the  Matronalia,  when 
women  went  in  solemn  procession  to  sacrifice  and  gave  gifts 
to  their  servants,  relations  and  friends.  In  later  times  the 
special  guardians  of  women  were  called  Jmiones. 


30 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


A royal  diadem  and  sceptre  are  the  attributes  of  Hera  as  con- 
sort of  the  supreme  god,  and  as  queen  of  Heaven  she  sometimes 
wears  a veil  spangled  with  stars.  (Fig.  3.)  She  is  usually 
represented  as  a majestic  and  beautiful  woman,  whose  features 


Fig.  4.  Nike  of  Samothrake  [restored  by  ZumhnscK), 


express  pride  and  dignity  rather  than  gentleness,  and  whose 
large  eyes  are  full  of  haughty  command.  Homer  calls  her 
“ ox-eyed  Hera.”  Sometimes  she  is  seated  on  a throne  hold- 
ing the  sceptre  and  a pomegranate,  emblem  of  fertility,  some- 


II.]  THE  RETINUE  OF  ZEUS  AND  HERA  31 

times  in  a chariot  drawn  by  peacocks,  or  again,  she  has  the 
peacock  at  her  side,  and  the  cuckoo  perched  on  her  sceptre. 

3.  The  Retinue  of  Zeus  and  Hera. 

[d)  Nike  (Victoria). 

Nike  (Victory)  was  the  constant  attendant  of  Zeus  and  his 
favourite  daughter,  Pallas  Athene,  and  crowned  the  victorious 
warrior  or  the  winner  in  civic  games.  She  is  called  daughter 
of  Zeus,  or  sometimes  of  the  giant  Pallas  and  the  Okeanid 
Styx.  There  were  numerous  types  of  Nike  in  art.  (Fig. 
4.)  She  appears  holding  a shield,  with  palm  and  wreath, 
emblems  of  victory,  or  with  the  kerykeion,  Hermes’  herald- 
staff,  carrying  the  decrees  of  Zeus  to  men.  She  either 
floats  lightly  in  the  air  or  stands  upon  the  earth  as  the 
scene  of  victory. 

(/;)  Iris. 

Iris,  goddess  of  the  rainbow,  was  the  messenger  of  Zeus 
and  Hera.  She  could  dart  quick  as  thought  over  the  earth, 
even  plunging  into  the  sea  and  the  rivers  of  the  under- 
world. Iris  lived  with  Zeus  and  Hera  in  Olympos,  and  the 
Immortals  in  council  would  often  confer  with  her,  and  send 
her  down  to  earth  to  guide  and  advise  mankind.  According 
to  the  legend.  Iris  was  a daughter  of  Thaumas  and  Elektra, 
therefore  a grand-daughter  of  Okeanos  and  Gaia.  In  art 
she  is  winged,  and  resembles  Nike.  She  bears  the  kery- 
keion of  Hermes,  to  express  her  office  as  messenger  of  the 
gods.  ^ 

(c)  Hebe. 

Hebe,  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  was  worshipped  as  the 
goddess  of  youth  and  its  attendant  pleasures.  She  bloomed 


^ Iliad,  iii.  121. 


32 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


in  everlasting  freshness  and  beauty,  for  the  nectar  and 
ambrosia  which  she  serv^ed  to  the  gods  at  their  feasts  gave 
her  immortality.  She  held  the  office  of  cup-bearer,  but  was 
superseded  by  Ganymedes,  possibly  after  her  marriage  with 
Herakles.  Hebe  was  expected  to  do  service  of  many  kinds 
to  her  parents.  She  helped  Hera  to  yoke  the  team  of 
horses  to  her  chariot,  or  performed  choric  dances  with  other 
youthful  goddesses,  while  Apollo  played  on  the  lyre  and 
the  Muses  sang,  or  she*  took  her  place  among  the  attendants 
of  Aphrodite.  Hebe  is  best  known  as  the  youthful  bride  of 
Herakles,  and  was  often  worshipped  in  conjunction  with 
him.  Near  Phlius  in  Argolis  there  was  a temple  to  Hebe 
surrounded  by  a grove,  and  famous  as  an  asylum  for  fugitives. 
Juventas  among  the  Romans  corresponds  to  the  Hebe  of  the 
Greeks.  Works  of  art  represent  Hebe  as  a charming  young 
girl  in  a thin  robe,  crowned  with  flowers,  and  pouring  the 
drink  of  the  gods  from  a flagon  into  a drinking-cup  which 
she  holds  in  her  hand. 


(d)  Ganymedes. 

Ganymedes  was  the  son  of  the  Trojan  king  Tros  and  of 
Kallirrhoe^  and  grandson  of  Dardanus,  the  founder  of  Troy. 
While  he  was  keeping  sheep  on  Mount  Ida,  Zeus  was 
enamoured  of  his  beauty,  and,  taking  the  form  of  an  eagle, 
seized  and  carried  him  up  to  Olympos,  where  he  made  him 
Hebe’s  successor  and  cup-bearer  of  the  gods.  (Fig.  5.) 
Ganymedes  is  always  represented  as  a lovely  young  boy. 
Sometimes  he  wears  a Phrygian  cap,  thus  showing  the 
Asiatic  origin  of  his  legend.  His  office  is  indicated  by  the 
cup  which  he  holds,  and  his  duty  as  servant  of  the  gods  by 
the  eagle  of  Zeus,  which  stands  beside  him  and  receives 
drink  or  caresses  from  his  hand. 


II.] 


GANYMEDES 


33 


4 


34 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[CHAr. 


(e)  Themis, 

Themis  was  the  daughter  of  Ouranos  and  Gaia,  and 
symbolizes  the  pure  unbiassed  justice  of  the  gods  exercised 
in  human  affairs.  The  law  of  hospitality  was  under  her 
special  protection.  She  personifies  the  counsel  of  the  gods. 
Hence  she  is  said  to  have  presided  over  the  Delphic  Oracle 
before  Apollo,  and  to  have  been  his  teacher  in  the  art  of 
prophecy.  After  long  resistance  she  consented  to  a marriage 
with  Zeus  ; she  became  his  consort  after  Metis,  and  bore  him 
the  Horai  and  the  Moirai. 

Because  Themis  united  supreme  wisdom  and  incorruptible 
truth,  even  the  gods  came  to  her  for  advice.  Zeus  refrained 
from  a marriage  with  Thetis,  because  Themis  predicted  that 
Thetis’  son  should  be  mightier  than  his  father.  We  shall 
relate  elsewhere  how  Thetis  was  married  to  a mortal,  that 
the  gods  might  not  have  to  fear  her  son. 

The  worship  of  Themis  as  guardian  of  good  morals,  civil 
order  and  Divine  law,  was  carried  on  in  many  parts  of 
Greece,  especially  in  Athens,  Troezene,  ^gina,  Thebes  and 
Olympia,  where  temples,  altars  and  statues  were  erected  in 
her  honour. 

(/)  The  Horai 

As  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Themis,  the  Horai  are  the  god- 
desses of  the  seasons.  Their  number  is  variously  given,  perhaps 
depending  on  the  divisions  of  nature’s  year.  Winter  is  some- 
times not  reckoned,  being  the  time  when  nature  is  asleep  or 
dead.  In  Athens  two  Horai  were  worshipped,  Thallo  of  the 
spring-time,  and  Karpo  of  the  harvest ; in  other  places  the 
Horai  were  usually  three,  the  name  of  the  third  being 

/Robert  Carolus,  “ De  Gratiis  Atticis”  (in  “ Commentationes  Philo- 

* ] lopfce  in  Honorem  Theodor  Mommsen  ”). 

Ij.  E.  Harrison,  “ M)  thology  and  Monuments,” Div.  D.,  Sect,  xv.-xxii. 


II.] 


THE  HORAI 


35 


Auxo.  A fourth  does  occasionally  appear  later,  who,  although 
she  has  no  individual  name,  is  identified  by  her  hunting 
spoils  as  belonging  to  winter.  These  goddesses  of  favourable 
seasons,  bringing  blossom  and  fertility,  form  part  of  the 
following  of  the  heavenly  gods,  especially  of  Zeus  and  Hera. 
They  appear,  too,  with  the  Charites,  in  the  train  of  Aphrodite 
or  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  Closely  connected  with  their 
function  as  goddesses  of  fertility  is  their  influence  on  the 
weather.  They  have  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven,  to  open 
them  or  to  set  them  to,”  ^ so  that  rain  and  sunshine  may 
duly  alternate  and  bring  the  fruits  of  the  earth  to  perfection. 
Kind  and  gracious  to  the  human  race,  they  were  thought  of 
as  a group  of  merry  gentle  girls  bringing  prosperity  and 
cheerfulness  in  their  train. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  men  began  to  see  in  the 
regular  alternation  of  the  seasons  an  unchangeable  law.  To 
correspond  with  this  new  conception,  the  Horai  were  made 
daughters  of  Themis,  and  guardians  of  law  and  order.  In  this 
aspect  their  names  have  special  significance.  They  are  called 
Eunomia  (good  order).  Dike  (right  usage),  and  Eirene  (peace). 
Eunomia  presides  over  civic  relations,  and  that  state  is  happy 
which  never  neglects  her  worship.  The  sphere  of  Dike  is 
individual  conduct,  and  she  reports  to  her  father,  Zeus,  every 
wrong  done  on  the  earth.  Eirene,  the  most  cheerful  of  the 
three,  is  mother  of  Ploutos  (wealth),  companion  of  Dionysos 
in  his  revels,  and  patroness  of  feasts  and  merry  songs.  (Fig.  6.) 

“ Peace  most  holy,  august,  serene, 

O heaven-born  queen. 

Peace  with  wealth  in  her  arms.”  * 

The  Flora  of  the  spring  was  worshipped  most  of  all.  Her 


* Homer,  Il'ad,  v.  749. 

’ Aristophanes,  “Pax,”  1127. 


3^ 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


name  was  sometimes  Chloris^  and  she  was  married  to  the 
gentle  Zephyros^  whose  breath  calls  forth  the  first  flowers 
of  the  year. 


Fig.  6.  Eirene  with  the  young  Plutos,  after  Kephisodoto  [M7inicK), 

Plastic  art  represented  the  Horai  as  slender  maidens, 
lightly  draped  and  crowned  with  flowers  and  fruit. 


II.] 


THE  MOIRAI 


37 


(^)  Divinities  of  FaU. 

The  Greeks  believed  in  a number  of  divinities,  whose  office 
it  was  to  execute  on  earth  the  commands  of  the  supreme 
gods,  and  especially  of  Zeus.  Personifying  the  fixed  decrees 
of  nature,  they  watched  over  man^s  life  and  appointed  his 
death  hour.  The  gods  themselves  dared  not  interfere  with 
their  award,  and  were  powerless  to  save  their  mortal  sons 
and  favourites,  when  once  the  divinities  of  Fate  had  resolved 
their  death.  The  most  important  of  these  divinities  are  : — 

1.  The  (Fates). 

In  the  times  before  Homer  we  only  hear  of  one  Moira^ 
the  representative  of  justice  and  right  reason  in  the  order  of 
the  universe,  and  the  ruler  of  gods  and  men.  Even  Zeus 
could  not  gainsay  Moira.  In  later  times  there  were  three 
Moirai,  whose  activity  was  concentrated  on  man^s  existence 
in  its  three  phases  of  birth,  life  and  death.  In  this  aspect  the 
Moirai  no  longer  mean  the  supreme  moral  law  which  Zeus 
must  obey,  but  are,  like  the  other  gods,  subject  to  Zeus. 

The  Moirai  are  called  daughters  of  Night,  because  they 
rule  the  dark  and  hidden  destinies  of  men.  They  are  named 
Klotho  (spinner),  Lachesis  (lot-thrower),  Atropos  (the  un- 
bending one).  The  emblem  of  a spinning-wheel  expressed 
their  mighty  influence  over  human  life.  While  life  may  last 
the  sisters  spin  the  thread,  now  thick,  now  thin,  of  gold, 
silver  or  wool  ; when  life  must  end  they  cut  the  thread 
asunder. 

The  Moirai  in  late  art  are  aged  women  of  a serious  counte- 
nance, grouped  together  and  engaged  in  their  typical  employ- 
ment. They  carry  a spindle  or  the  dice  of  fate,  and  some- 
times a roll  of  writing  or  a balance. 

The  Romans  knew  the  Moirai  by  the  name  of  Parcae. 

2.  Tyche^  the  Fortuna  of  the  Romans,  is  closely  connected 
with  the  Moirai.  She  is  the  goddess  of  chance,  exercising  a 


38 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


powerful  influence  for  good  or  ill  on  the  life  of  man,  and  is 
called  a daughter  of  Zeus.  Among  the  Greeks  she  was  most 
frequently  worshipped  as  the  goddess  who  conducts  under- 
takings to  a fortunate  issue.  She  carried  a horn  of  plenty  in 


Fig.  7.  Fortuna  {^Vatican,  Rome), 


her  hand,  and  wore  the  polos — the  symbol  of  wealth — on  her 
head,  or  she  grasped  a rudder  as  if  steering  a ship  on  a pros- 
perous voyage.  Wings,  a ball  and  a wheel,  which  some- 
times appear  as  her  attributes,  signify  the  swift  alternations 
of  good  and  ill  luck  in  human  affairs.  (Fig.  7.) 


ff  Sf' 


APOLLO  MUSAGETES. 

(VATICAN,  ROME.) 


\ 


II.] 


TALES  OF  HERMES'  YOUTH 


43 


the  prudence  and  cunning  which  were  to  distinguish  him. 
Slyly  and  secretly  he  crept  out  of  the  cave  on  Mount  Kyllene. 
and  stole  part  of  a herd  of  oxen  belonging  to  Apollo,  his 
brother.  Apollo  sought  for  his  beasts  long  and  in  vain,  for  the 
crafty  young  god  obliterated  their  tracks  by  tying  bundles  of 
twigs  to  their  feet,  and  at  last  dragged  them  backwards  into 
a cave  in  a hill,  so  that  the  hoof-marks  appeared  to  be 
those  of  cattle  which  had  been  driven  out.  A countryman, 
however,  who  had  observed  the  theft,  told  Apollo  of  it.  Apollo 
was  enraged,  and  dragged  the  mischievous  boy  before  the 
throne  of  Zeus,  that  he  might  be  punished.  Hermes  showed 
no  fear,  and  made  such  merry  jokes  that  he  soon  put  Zeus 
and  Apollo  in  good  humour.  He  completed  the  reconcilia- 
tion by  giving  his  brother  a lyre,  which  he  had  made  out  of 
the  shell  of  a tortoise  and  fitted  with  strings,  while  for  his 
own  use  he  invented  the  shepherd’s  flute.  From  this  time 
the  brothers  were  the  best  of  friends,  and  in  return  for  the 
lyre  Apollo  gave  Hermes  the  golden  wishing-rod  of  good 
luck. 

When  Hermes  was  grown  he  practised  the  same  craft  and 
persuasion  that  he  had  possessed  in  so  extraordinary  a 
degree  as  a boy,  and  with  the  same  success.  He  robbed 
Zeus  of  his  sceptre,  Aphrodite  of  her  girdle,  Hephaistos 
of  his  tongs,  and  Apollo  of  his  bow  and  arrows.  But  the 
exploit  which  showed  his  powers  in  the  most  wonderful  way 
was  the  following.*  lo,  who  was  beloved  by  Zeus,  had  been 
changed  into  a heifer  in  order  that  she  might  escape  the 
jealous  wrath  of  Hera.  Hera  discovered  the  trick,  sent  a 
gad-fly  to  torment  lo,  and  finally  told  Argos  to  watch  her. 
Now  Hermes  received  from  Zeus  the  command  to  free  lo 
from  the  custody  of  Argos  without  using  force.  As  the 


, ( .^schylus,  Prometheus  Vinctus. 
I Euripides,  Phoenissae. 


44 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


watcher,  Argos,  had  a hundred  eyes,  and  even  in  the  deepest 
sleep  only  shut  fifty  of  them,  this  was  no  light  task,  yet 
Hermes  accomplished  it.  He  first  talked  Argos  over  and 
won  his  confidence  by  all  kinds  of  crafty  tales,  then  he 
piped  songs  to  him  on  the  shepherd’s  flute  and  sent  him  so 
fast  asleep  that  all  his  hundred  eyes  closed  one  after  another, 
then  he  killed  him  and  took  lo  away.  Hera  is  said  to  have 
placed  the  eyes  of  Argos  in  the  tail  of  her  peacock. 

But  the  whole  character  of  Hermes  is  not  comprised  in 
these  traits  of  cunning  and  trickery.  He  was  a skilful 
inventor.  He  made  the  lute  for  the  Theban  singer,  Amphion^ 
and  taught  Palamedes  the  alphabet.  As  god  of  eloquence 
Hermes  was  greatly  reverenced  in  later  times — hence  the 
tongues  of  sacrificial  victims  were  dedicated  to  him.  When- 
ever heroes  were  called  to  dangerous  adventures  requiring 
skill  and  courage,  Hermes  appears  as  their  leader,  often  in 
association  with  Athene,  as  in  the  tale  of  Herakles.  Travellers 
who  had  lost  their  way,  and  exiles  in  a foreign  country  or 
among  enemies  prayed  to  Hermes  for  succour. 

In  the  fight  with  the  giants  Hermes  saved  his  father,  Zeus, 
from  the  power  of  Typhon,  and  he  did  many  a good  service 
for  the  other  gods.  But  any  man  who  approached  him 
without  due  respect  was  severely  punished.  Battos^  for 
instance,  was  turned  into  a stone  for  having  revealed  to 
Apollo  the  theft  of  his  cattle.  In  early  works  of  art  Hermes 
is  represented  as  a middle-aged  man  with  a stiff  pointed 
beard,  wearing  a chlamys  hanging  down  behind,  a travelling- 
hat  and  winged  shoes,  and  carrying  a staff  in  his  hand.  In 
later  times  he  appears  as  a vigorous  beardless  youth  with 
short  hair,  his  head  covered  by  the  winged  petasos,  holding  in 
his  hand  the  kerykeion  wound  round  with  snakes,  or  the 
money  bag,  and  having  on  his  feet  the  winged  sandals — 
symbol  of  swiftness.  The  most  beautiful  statue  of  Hermes 


II.] 


A THENE 


45 


extant,  that  by  Praxiteles  (found  in  Olympia),  represents  the 
god  as  a blooming  youth,  holding  the  infant  Dionysos  on 
his  arm. 

The  worship  of  Mercurius  was  not  so  widespread  among 
the  Pomans  as  that  of  Hermes  among  the  Greeks.  To  the 
tribes  of  Italy  he  was  essentially  a god  of  trade  and  gain,  and 
his  cultus  was  not  patronized  by  persons  of  high  position. 
Merchants  and  artizans  celebrated  his  festival  at  Rome  on 
the  25th  of  May. 

5.  Athene  (Minerva).* 

The  current  myth  concerning  the  birth  of  Athene  is  that 
she  sprang  fully  armed  out  of  the  head  of  Zeus,  who  had 
swallowed  Metis,  her  mother.  (Fig.  8.)  At  this  great  event 
heaven  and  earth  trembled,  the  sea  swelled  high,  and  the 
daylight  was  obscured.  It  was  Hephaistos,  or,  according  to 
another  version,  Prometheus,  who  clove  open  the  head  of 
Zeus  that  Pallas  might  spring  forth.  Another  myth  makes 
her  the  offspring  of  Poseidon  and  the  nymph  Tritonis,  and 
adds  that  Zeus  adopted  her  as  his  daughter — hence  her 
name  Tritogeneia^  or  Tritonia,'^  The  popular  legend  of 
Athene’s  birth  from  the  head  of  Zeus  is  founded  on  an  idea 
similar  to  that  which  makes  Hephaistos  the  son  of  Hera 
alone,  for  while  Hephaistos,  the  god  of  earthly  fire,  has 
nothing  to  do  with  heaven,  Athene,  in  her  aspect  of  queen 
of  the  air,  has  nothing  to  do  with  earth. 

Athene  has  a double  meaning.  As  Pallas  she  is  a storm- 
divinity  wearing  the  aegis,  presiding  over  battles,  and  keeping 
the  keys  of  the  chamber  where  lie  the  thunderbolts  of  Zeus. 


K.  O.  Mueller,  “ Kleine  deutsche  Schriften,”  vol.  ii.  p.  134  (Pallas 
Athene). 

.A.  Voigt,  “ Beitrage  zur  Mythologie  des  Ares  uder  Athena.” 

® Jakob  Escher,  “ Triton  und  seine  Bekampfung.” 


46 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


In  peace  she  becomes  the  instructress  of  man  in  wisdom, 
art,  and  handicrafts. 

Athene  always  remained  a virgin,  rejecting  the  offers 
of  all  her  wooers.  She  fought  on  the  side  of  Zeus  in 
the  war  with  the  Titans  and  giants,  bringing  Herakles 
to  his  aid,  and  she  herself  defeated  the  terrible  giant 
Enkelados.  (Fig.  9.)  When  the  kingdom  of  Zeus  was 
established  she  became  the  patroness  of  those  heroes  who 
fought  with  evil  men  and  monsters.  She  was  the  con- 
stant companion  of  Herakles  in  all  his  toilsome  adven- 


FiG.  8.  Black-figured  Vase:  Birth  of  Athene  [British  Museum). 


tures,  and  she  helped  Perseus  to  slay  Medusa,^  whose 
head  she  placed  on  her  shield.  On  account  of  the  latter 
exploit  she  received  the  name  of  Gorgpohone^  (gorgon- 
slayer.)  Associated  with  Hera,  she  protected  the  Argonauts, 
and  Theseus  accomplished  his  contests  by  her  assistance. 
Nor  did  she  forget  the  Greek  heroes  before  Troy,  for  it  was 
by  her  counsels,  after  a nine  years’  siege,  that  the  town  was 
taken. 

In  times  of  peace  Athene  was  the  patroness  of  all  kind^ 


^ I Apollodorus,  ii.  4. 

1 Ovid,  “Metam  ; ” iv.  662. 


ATHENE  IN  PEACE  AND  WAR 


M 


n] 

of  arts  and  handicrafts.  She  invented  the  spindle,  the  loom 
and  the  flute,  but  shared  with  other  gods  the  honour  of 
having  discovered  the  art  of  medicine.  New-born  children 
were  specially  under  the  guardianship  of  Athene  as  Kouro- 
trophos.  The  legend  says  that  she  helped  Bellerophon  to 
bridle  the  winged  horse  Pegasos,  and  in  Athens,  Erich- 
thonios  first  under  her  direction  learned  to  yoke  horses  to  a 
chariot. 

The  land  of  Attika  was  Athene’s  special  property,  for  she 


Fig.  9.  Athene-group  from  the  Altar-frieze  of  Pergamon  {restored  by  Tondeur). 


had  received  it  from  the  gods  after  the  contest  with  Posei- 
don. Here  she  was  more  honoured  than  any  other  god, 
and  Athens,  the  capital,  bore  her  name.  The  most  sacred 
emblem  of  her  presence  was  the  olive-tree  on  the  Acropolis, 
which  she  had  created  in  the  strife  with  Poseidon,  and 
from  which  all  other  olive-trees,  forming  as  they  did  the 
chief  wealth  of  Attica,  were  believed  to  have  sprung.  The 
following  legend  about  the  sacred  olive-tree  shows  the 
Athenians’  deep-seated  belief  in  their  goddess.  When  the 


48 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[CHAl. 


Persians  marched  against  Greece  with  an  overwhelming 
force  Athene  came  to  the  throne  of  her  father,  Zeus,  and 
begged  that  her  city  might  be  saved.  But  Fate  had  other- 
wise determined  : Athens  must  be  destroyed,  although  she  was 
destined  to  rise  again  more  glorious  from  her  ruins.  There- 
fore Zeus  was  forced  to  refuse  his  favourite  daughter's  request, 
the  Athenians  fled,  taking  refuge  in  their  fleet,  and  the  Per- 
sians razed  Athens  to  the  ground.  In  the  fire  which 
destroyed  the  Acropolis  the  sacred  olive-tree  perished,  but  a 
new  shoot  quickly  sprouted  three  yards  high  from  the  old 
stock — an  omen  of  the  new  birth  of  the  city  from  its  ashes  ; 
and  with  the  help  of  the  goddess  the  Athenians,  at  the  head 
of  the  other  Hellenes,  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Salamis, 
annihilated  the  Persian  fleet,  vastly  superior  in  numbers, 
inflicted  immense  loss  on  the  enemy,  and  forced  them  to  a 
speedy  and  disgraceful  retreat. 

Athene  had  many  names,  corresponding  to  her  different 
functions  and  to  the  places  in  which  she  was  worshipped. 
She  was  called  Polias^  protector  of  cities,  Soteira^  saviour, 
Parthenos^  the  virgin,  Hippia^  the  horse-tamer,  Ergane^ 
skilled  in  handicraft,  Nike^  victorious,  Glaukopis^  grey-eyed, 
and  her  art-type  varies  accordingly.  In  her  warlike  func- 
tion she  appears  as  a tall,  majestic  maiden  of  grave  aspect, 
carrying  a shield  on  her  left  arm  and  a spear  in  her  right 
hand,  wearing  on  her  head  a helmet  decorated  with  a 
horse-hair  crest,  an  owl  or  a sphinx,  and  girt  with  a 
breastplate  edged  with  snakes  and  bearing  on  its  front  tlK 
head  of  Medusa.  (Fig.  lo.)  As  Ergane,  goddess  of  femi- 
nine arts,  she  wears  a peplos  falling  in  ample  folds,  and  a 
helmet,  but  instead  of  arms  she  holds  a spindle.  Sometimes 
she  is  attended  by  a snake — the  emblem  of  health  and  wis- 
dom. The  owl  was  specially  sacred  to  her  and  hence 
became  a symbol  of  wisdom.  In  every  aspect  Athene 


PALLAS  ATHENE. 

(after  PHEIDIAS.  found  at  ATHENS,  l88o.) 


IT.] 


NAMES  OF  A THENE 


49 


is  distinguished  by  clear  insight  and  dispassionate  judg- 
ment. 

The  oldest  wooden  image  of  the  goddess,  supposed  to 


have  fallen  from  heaven,  was  called  the  Palladion.  Accord- 
ing to  current  legend  it  was  at  first  in  the  possession  of  the 
royal  family  of  Troy,  and  its  presence  ensured  the  safety  of  the 
city.  In  the  Trojan  war  Odysseus  and  Diomedes  took  it  away 

S 


50 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


by  guile,  and  then  the  Greeks  succeeded  in  taking  the  town. 
There  was  another  story,  that  ^neas  saved  it  from  the 
burning  temple  and  brought  it  uninjured  to  Italy.  Other 
cities  had  other  versions,  and  claimed  to  have  originally 
possessed  the  real  Palladion.  This  claim  was  made  by  Argos, 
Athens,  and  Rome,  and  in  each  case  the  prosperity  and  safety 
of  the  city  were  ensured  by  and  dependent  on  the  possession  of 
the  image.  In  Athens  it  was  preserved  on  the  Acropolis. 
The  term  Palladion  was  applied  later  to  other  sacred  objects 
supposed  to  exercise  a similar  protective  power.* 

The  most  beautiful  and  significant  representations  of 
Athene  were  to  be  seen  at  Athens,  and  were  the  work  of 
Pheidias,  creator  of  the  great  statue  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 
His  gold-ivory  temple  statue  in  the  Parthenon  was  specially 
famous.  Plate  IV.  shows  a late  copy  of  this  statue  found  in 
Athens  in  1880,  and  reproducing  the  principal  features  of  the 
original.  On  the  Acropolis,  in  the  open  air,  near  the  entrance, 
stood  the  colossal  brazen  statue  of  Athene  Promachos^  the 
leader  in  fight,  also  from  the  hand  of  Pheidias.  Any  one 
approaching  Athens  by  sea  could  see  her  crest-spear  point 
as  soon  as  he  rounded  the  promontory  of  Sunium.  All 
antiquity  acknowledged  the  glory  of  the  masterpieces  of 
Pheidias,  wh.ose  essence,  according  to  Winckelmann,  was 
“ noble  simplicity  and  quiet  majesty.’^ 

The  most  brilliant  festivals  in  honour  of  Athene  took 
place  in  Athens,  her  favourite  city,  and  were  called  the 
Panathenaia.  These  lasted  on  each  occasion  for  several 
days.  For  three  years  in  succession  the  lesser  Panathenaia 
were  celebrated,  and  on  the  fourth  year,  i.e,^  the  third  of 
each  Olympiad,  the  greater  Panathenaia.  The  festival  was  of 
great  antiquity,  and  was  said  to  have  been  established  in  its 


* Otto  Crusius,  “ Beitiage  zur  griechischen  Mythologie  und  Religionsge- 
schichte.’*  1886.  Thomas  Schule,  Programme  No.  498. 


II.] 


FESTIVALS  OF  ATHENE 


51 


complete  form  by  Theseus,  the  favourite  of  the  goddess.  It 
was  celebrated  with  solemn  processions,  war-games,  rich 
sacrifices  and  banquets,  in  which  all  Athenian  colonists  took 
part.  In  this  joyous  assembly  was  commemorated  the  union 
of  the  separate  townships  of  Attica  into  one  great  common- 
wealth under  the  protection  of  the  goddess.  The  prize  of 
victory  was  neither  gold  nor  silver,  but  a vase  of  purest 
olive  oil  pressed  from  the  fruit  of  Athene’s  sacred  tree. 
These  vases,  many  of  which  have  been  preserved,  show  on 
one  side  the  figure  of  the  goddess  in  fighting  pose,  and  on 
the  other  a representation  of  the  contest  or  game  in  which 
the  prize  was  won.  The  last  and  crowning  ceremony  was 
the  presentation  of  a rich  and  costly  garment,  embroidered  by 
the  wives  and  maidens  of  Athens  to  deck  the  statue  of  the 
goddess.  A splendid  procession  was  formed,  consisting  of 
representatives  of  every  class  of  citizen,  young  knights  on 
horseback  or  in  four-horse  chariots,  some  of  them  fully 
armed,  citizens  with  their  wives  and  daughters,  all  in  festal 
array.  The  magistrates  of  Athens  offered  the  sacrifice  to  the 
goddess.  Two  girls  of  noble  family,  of  the  age  of  seven  to 
eleven  years,  had  served  in  her  sanctuary  all  the  preceding 
year. 

Among  the  numerous  other  festivals  of  Athene  were  the 
Chalkeia,  in  which  she  was  worshipped  specially  as  Ergane, 
patron  of  all  kinds  of  feminine  art,  and  of  handicrafts  in 
general.  In  this  celebration  Hephaistos,  patron  of  smiths 
and  gold-workers,  was  associated  with  her. 

Among  the  Romans,  Minerva  was  the  object  of  as  zealous 
worship  as  Athene  among  the  Greeks,  for  her  qualities  were 
suitable  to  the  genius  of  the  Roman  people.  She,  too,  was 
goddess  of  wisdom  and  reflection,  and  patroness  of  arts, 
handicrafts  and  domestic  labours  such  as  spinning,  weaving 
and  embroidery.  But  the  warlike  aspects  of  Pallas  were 


52 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


transferred  by  the  Italian  tribes  to  other  gods.  There  were 
in  Rome  several  richly  adorned  temples  of  Minerva,  one  of 
the  oldest  of  which  stood  on  the  Capitol. 

Great  reverence  was  paid  to  her  statue,  the  Roman 
Palladium,  and  a festival  in  her  honour,  called  the  Quin- 
quatria,  was  celebrated  every  fifth  year  from  the  19th  to  the 
23rd  of  March.  Artists,  artizans  and  especially  school- 
children,  took  part  in  it. 

6.  Apollon  (Apollo).* 

Apollo  was  twin  brother  of  Artemis  and  son  of  Zeus. 
His  mother  was  Leto^  and,  according  to  the  best  known 
legend,  she  bore  him  on  the  island  of  Delos,  one  of  the 
Kyklades,  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  having  after  long  wanderings 
at  last  found  refuge  there  from  the  persecution  of  Hera. 
The  legend  says  that  the  island  was  a barren  rock  floating 
about  in  the  sea,  but  after  the  birth  of  the  god  it  stood  still, 
gleaming  with  golden  light,  and  was  surrounded  by  sacred 
swans  who  swam  over  the  sea.  Therefore  the  birthday  of 
Apollo  was  celebrated  at  Delos  at  the  beginning  of  May. 

Apollo  is  the  glorious  god  of  light,  not  only  of  the  sun, 
but  of  everything  beautiful  and  noble.  His  name,  Phoihos^ 
the  gleaming  one,  expresses  this  aspect  of  his  character. 
Knowledge,  truth,  justice  and  purity  are  under  his  pro- 
tection. 

The  Apollo  myths  are  old  indigenous  products  of  Greece, 
not  imported,  like  those  of  Aphrodite  and  Dionysos,  from 
the  East.  It  is  true  that  light-  and  sun-gods,  presenting 
points  of  similarity  to  Apollo,  were  worshipped  by  Oriental 


Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo. 

Theodor  Schreiber,  “ Apollon  Pylhoktonos.' 


n.| 


APOLLO 


S3 


races.  They  personify  the  same  aspects  of  nature,  but  have 
no  further  connection  with  him. 

The  most  important  place  for  the  worship  of  Apollo  was 
Delphi^  where  the  famous  fight  with  the  dragon  took  place. 
Here  the  god  of  light  slew  with  his  arrows  the  Python,  a 
monstrous  dragon  of  darkness,  who  crawled  down  from  the 
mountains  to  dry  up  woods  and  meadows  with  his  poisonous 
breath,  and  to  destroy  men  and  beasts. 

The  beautiful  legend  of  Apollo’s  sojourn  among  the 
Hyperboreans  was  founded  on  the  yearly  variation  of 
the  sun.  In  autumn  the  god  was  accompanied  by  his 
worshippers  on  the  first  stage  of  his  journey,  as  far  as  the 
boundary  of  his  sanctuary,  and  solemn  rites  celebrated  his 
departure.  Far  north,  in  the  dwelling  of  Apollo’s  sacred 
swan,  in  the  country  of  eternal  light,  beyond  snows  and 
storms,  lived  the  Hyperboreans,"  a pious  people  resembling 
the  early  races  of  men;  There  was  never  a cloud  in  their 
sky,  and  they  lived  with  Apollo  as  children  with  a father. 
There,  with  his  mother  and  sister,  Apollo  spent  the  three 
winter  months,  and  in  spring  he  returned  to  his  own  at 
Delphi,  and  was  received  with  songs  of  delight.  Hence  the 
most  important  festivals  at  Delphi  were  held  in  spring. 
Next  to  the  Olympian  games  the  Delphian  were  the  most 
frequented  of  all.  The  god  was  honoured  by  magnificent 
contests  and  sacrifices,  and  the  laurel-crown  of  Delphi  was  as 
worthy  the  winning  as  the  prize  of  Olympia. 

At  many  points  Apollo  came  into  contact  with  human 
life.  As  vigorous  hunter  and  brave  warrior  he  was  the 
type  for  the  emulation  of  youth,  on  the  field  of  battle  he 
appeared  as  the  Death-god,  the  unerring  Far-darter,  and  in 
the  Niobe  legends  he  dries  and  withers  the  tender  growths 


’ See  Roscher’s  Lexikon. 


$4 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


of  the  soil  with  his  burning  rays.  Hero-legends  are  full  of 
the  names  of  brave  men,  Achilles,  Patroklos,  Neoptolemos 
and  others  whom,  he  overcame. 

Apollo  Nomios  was  god  of  flocks  and  herds,  and  protected 
them  and  the  shepherds  who  tended  them.  Indeed  on  one 
occasion  he  turned  shepherd  himself,  when  he  fed  the  flocks 
of  Laomedon,  and  kept  them  fat  and  thriving.  He  drove 
away  the  pestilence  rising  from  the  swamps  in  summer,  and 
as  physician  cared  for  the  growth  of  healing  plants.  Roads 
and  house-doors  were  under  his  charge,  and  cylindrical 
tapering  pillars  were  placed  in  house-yards  as  his  emblems. 
Seamen  worshipped  Apollo  as  protector  of  the  high  seas  and 
harbours.  He  is  called  Delphinios^  because  the  dolphin, 
whose  element  is  the  water,  and  about  whose  tameness  and 
love  of  music  so  many  tales  are  told,  was  sacred  to  him. 
This  brings  us  to  an  important  function  of  Apollo.  Among 
all  the  god’s  wondrous  ways  of  touching  the  human  heart, 
music  is  the  first.  The  Greeks  believed  that  Apollo  himself 
in  a rich  long  robe  would  delight  the  gods  by  playing  on 
the  lyre,  while  the  Muses  sang  sweetly  to  his  tune.  All 
poetic  inspiration  was  ascribed  to  him,  and  at  all  festivals, 
but  especially  in  Delphi,  musical  competitions  took  place  in 
his  honour. 

Apollo  was  supposed  to  stand  in  very  close  relation  with 
the  mantic  art  which  interprets  the  secrets  of  the  future.  In 
the  very  oldest  tirnes  we  hear  of  many  of  his  oracles — for 
instance,  that  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  Branchidai  at  Miletus, 
in  Asia.  But  the  most  important  of  all,  which  exer- 
cised an  almost  unbounded  influence  over  the  Greeks  of 
the  classical  period,  and  was  regarded  with  great  reverence 
even  in  later  times,  was  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  The  god 
spoke  by  the  mouth  of  the  Pythia^  or  priestess.  She  sat  on 
a high  golden  tripod  over  a cleft  in  the  earth,  out  of  which 


II] 


THE  ORACLE  OF  DELPHI 


55 


a damp  intoxicating  vapour  arose,  and  when  overpowered 
by  the  fumes  and  in  a state  of  semi-trance,  she  gave  forth 
prophecies  in  separate  ejaculations,  which  the  priests  trans- 
lated into  verses,  cleverly  arranged  to  contain  a double 
meaning,  and  easily  misunderstood.  The  following  is  an 
example.  When  the  whole  Persian  power  was  preparing 
to  invade  Greece  the  oracle  advised  the  Athenians  to  take 
shelter  within  a wooden  wall.  The  Athenian  elders,  mis- 
understanding this  saying,  surrounded  the  Acropolis  with  a 
wooden  palisade,  which  was  of  course  of  no  avail  against 
the  enemy.  But  Themistocles  and  the  younger  men  thought 
the  “ wooden  wall  ” meant  a fleet,  and  by  taking  to  their 
ships  they  won  the  glorious  victory  of  Salamis,  and  saved 
the  city  and  all  Hellas.  By  this  ambiguity  in  its  replies  the 
oracle  of  Delphi  kept  up  its  reputation  for  infallibility,  and 
preserved  its  influence. 

Apollo  had  a second  function  in  Delphi.  He  was  the 
alleviator  of  remorse  and  the  expiator  of  guilt.  He  himself 
had  incurred  blood-guiltiness  by  slaying  the  dragon  Python, 
and  must  undergo  a hard  expiation  before  he  could  again 
become  the  bright-beaming  Phoibos  ; therefore  he  freed 
miserable  fugitives  from  the  pursuit  of  the  Fates  and 
avenging  gods.  The  legend  of  Orestes^  pursued  by  the 
Ermyes  for  the  murder  of  his  mother,  and  finding  safety 
and  rest  only  in  the  sanctuary  of  Apollo,  shows  the  god  in 
this  aspect. 

Of  the  many  legends  which  cluster  round  the  name  of 
Apollo  we  may  relate  a few  of  the  most  important.  Accord- 
ing to  one,  he  was  brought  up,  not  by  his  mother,  Leto,  but 
by  Themis,  who  fed  him  with  nectar  and  ambrosia.  Within 
a few  hours  from  his  birth  he  grew  to  blooming  manhood 
and  entered  on  his  power.  After  wandering  through  many 
countries  he  came  to  the  quiet  rocky  vale  of  Delphi,  and  fixed 


56 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[CHAl*. 


on  it  as  the  place  whence  his  oracles  should  be  announced  to 
men.  In  this  lovely  spot  in  the  heart  of  Greece  there  was 
already  an  ancient  oracle  of  Themis,  but  she  gladly  abdicated 
her  seat  to  her  young  fosterling.  To  no  purpose  did  the 
dreadful  dragon  Python  seek  to  hinder  the  home-coming  of 
the  god,  for  Apollo,  relying  on  his  unerring  bow,  withstood 
the  dragon  and  killed  him.  So  he  won  his  famous  seat,  and 
received  the  surname  of  Pythios  in  commemoration  of  his 
victory.  The  gift  of  prophecy  was  conferred  on  him  by  his 
father,  Zeus,  whose  mouthpiece  to  men  he  was  to  become. 
Apollo  remained  in  possession  of  Delphi,  but  was  often  obliged 
to  fight  to  protect  his  sanctuary.  Once  when  Herakles  tried 
to  force  the  priestess  to  give  an  answer,  and  was  about  to 
drag  away  the  tripod,  Apollo  came  to  the  rescue,  but  before 
the  quarrel  could  grow  into  a fight  Zeus  interfered  and 
reconciled  the  brothers,  who  became  from  that  time  the 
most  devoted  friends.  When  in  the  year  279  b.c.  a 
vast  multitude  of  Gauls  led  by  Brennus  came  to  plunder 
Delphi  of  its  costly  temple-treasures,  Apollo,  with  the  aid  of 
Artemis  and  Athene,  brought  down  a storm  of  hail  and 
thunder  on  their  heads  and  so  terrified  them  that  they  fled 
in  panic. 

When  Zeus  fought  with  the  Titans  and  giants  Apollo  was 
of  great  service  to  him  by  his  skill  and  certainty  in  shooting 
with  the  bow.  Yet  on  one  occasion  he  made  his  father  so 
angry,  that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Olympos  for  a time. 
Zeus  had  slain  Apollo’s  son,  Asklepios,  with  his  thunderbolt, 
and  Apollo  took  vengeance  by  killing  some  of  the  Kyklopes 
with  his  arrows.  So  he  was  forced  to  serve  King  Admetos  ot 
Pherai,  in  Thessaly,  like  a mere  mortal,  and  herd  his  cattle, 
as  he  had  formerly  herded  those  of  Laomedon  in  the  Asian 
Troas.  In  his  vexation  at  being  banished  from  Olympos 
Apollo  conspired  with  Poseidon  to  dethrone  Zeus,  but  they 


IL] 


NJOBE 


57 


were  both  defeated,  and  as  a punishment  were  set  to  build 
the  walls  of  Troy.  The  poets  say  that,  during  this  time  of 
enforced  toil,  Apollo  had  a strife  with  Pan,  who  maintained 
that  the  flute  was  a better  instrument  than  the  lyre.  Midas^ 
King  of  Lydia,  was  the  umpire,  and  decided  in  favour  of  Pan, 
and  to  punish  him  Apollo  caused  great  ass’s  ears  to  grow  on 
his  head.  Marsyas^  a satyr,  who  had  ventured  to  compete 
with  Apollo  in  the  art  of  music,  was  cruelly  put  to  death. 

Niohe^^  wife  to  Amphion,  the  famous  lute-player  of 
Thebes,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope,  and  mother  of  a 
troop  of  lovely  children,  had  boasted  in  her  pride  over  Leto. 
Apollo  and  Artemis,  stung  by  this  insult  to  their  mother, 
resolved  to  punish  the  arrogance  of  Niobe.  In  spite  of 
her  entreaties,  they  struck  down  with  their  arrows  her 
seven  sons  and  seven  daughters,  and  Amphion  slew  himself 
when  he  heard  that  his  sons  were  dead.  Niobe  wept  till  she 
became  a stone,  and  was  carried  by  a whirlwind  across  the 
sea  to  Asia  Minor,  where,  on  Mount  Sipylos,  her  stone 
image  still  sheds  tears.^ 

The  sanctuaries  of  Apollo  on  the  Peloponnesus  were 
specially  important.  In  the  worship  of  Apollo  Hyakinthos^ 
in  Amyklai^  mournful  songs  were  sung  and  poetical  com- 
petitions were  held  celebrating  the  life,  death,  and  reawaken- 
ing of  nature.  The  myth  which  the  festival  commemorated 
was  that  of  Hyakinthos^  youngest  and  most  lovely  son  of 
Amyklas,  and  beloved  by  Apollo.  One  version  of  the  tale 
related  that  he  met  his  death  by  misadventure,  being  struck 
by  a quoit  which  Apollo  threw  ; another,  that  the  wind-god 
Zephyros,  being  jealous  of  Apollo,  flung  a quoit  at 
Hyakinthos’  temple  and  thus  slew  him.  The  death  of  the 


^ Eduard  Thremer,  “ Pergamos  ” (Niobe,  p.  4). 


( Iliad,  xxiv.  603. 

(Ovid,  “ Metamorphoses,”  vi.  3. 


1 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


58 


boy,  and  his  transformation  into  the  flower  of  the  same  name, 
were  expressed  in  the  mourning  at  the  beginning  of  the 
festival,  his  joyous  revivification  in  the  celebrations  of  the 
second  and  third  days.  This  myth,  like  that  of  Persephone, 
is  closely  connected  with  the  alternation  of  the  seasons. 
Nature,  in  form  of  a lovely  boy,  is  slain  by  the  disc  of 
Apollo,  which  can  be  nothing  else  than  the  sun,  drying  and 
withering  the  tender  plants  with  his  heat.  The  grave  of 
Hyakinthos  was  shown  in  Amyklai,  underneath  a costly 
throne  which  supported  a statue  of  Apollo,  accounted  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  famous  works  of  art  in  Greece.^ 

The  Karneia  were  the  chief  festivals  of  Apollo  in  many 
towns  of  Peloponnesus,  but  especially  in  Sparta,  where  they 
took  a warlike  character.  The  whole  population  marched 
out  of  the  town  in  full  fighting  gear,  and  encamped  for  several 
days  in  tents,  as  if  for  a campaign.  At  this  time  the  god  was 
worshipped  in  his  destroying  aspect  of  heat  and  fever  ; people 
encamped  in  the  open  air  to  escape  his  evil  influence,  and 
tried  to  pacify  him  by  expiatory  offerings.  This  feast  was 
held  very  sacred  in  Sparta,  and  from  thence  its  observance 
spread  far  and  wide,  wherever  tribes  of  Dorian  stock  had  settled. 

Apollo  Delphinios^  the  lord  of  the  sea,  was  worshipped  in 
many  places,  but  especially  in  Athens,  where  was  the  Del- 
phinion,  the  oldest  place  of  trial  and  expiation  for  blood-guilti- 
ness. In  Athens,  too,  was  celebrated  in  April  the  feast  of  the 
Delphinia,^  supposed  to  be  the  institution  of  Theseus  before 
he  sailed  to  Crete  to  set  the  hostages  free.  In  May  followed 
another  festival  of  Apollo,  the  Thargelia,  celebrated  with 
offerings  of  fruits,  and  sacrifices  whose  ritual  offered  here  and 
there  reminiscence  of  the  old  times  when  human  lives  were 
given  to  the  gods. 

’ Pausanias,  iii.  i. 

® W.  Mannhardt,  “ Wald-und  Feldkulte”  (Eiresione). 


II.]  KARNEIA,  DELIA  AND  METAGEITINA 


59 


The  Delia,  an  important  festival  of  the  Ionic  Greeks,  was 
celebrated  at  the  same  time.  In  the  merry  feast  of  the 
Metageitina,  which  took  place  in  August,  Apollo,  as  god  of 
harvest  and  plenty,  entertained  the  other  gods.  The  first- 
fruits  of  the  field  and  the  bakehouse  were  offered  to  him, 
and  boys  with  wreaths  on  their  heads  went  about  the  town 
to  deck  the  houses  with  the  Eiresione,  an  olive-branch  bound 
with  fillets  and  decked  with  cakes  and  fruit.  The  custom  of 
offering  human  victims  as  an  expiation  of  guilt  survived  in 
the  sacrifice  of  two  condemned  criminals,  male  and  female, 
the  first  for  the  men  and  the  second  for  the  women.  These 
persons  were  led  in  solemn  procession  out  of  the  town^  and 
there  put  to  death. 

In  the  autumn  festival  of  the  month  Boedromion,  Apollo 
was  worshipped  as  protector  of  warriors  and  giver  of  victory. 

The  worship  of  Apollo  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  in 
the  year  320  b.c.  by  the  dedication  of  a temple  to  him  in 
fulfilment  of  a vow  made  during  a pestilence.  A second 
temple  was  built  soon  after  on  Mount  Capitolinus.  The 
Apolline  games  were  instituted  during  the  second  Punic 
war,  and  held  in  great  esteem. 

The  many-sided  divine  nature  of  Apollo  finds  art  expres- 
sion in  a great  variety  of  symbols  and  images.  As  the 
warlike  Far-darter,  he  is  distinguished  by  bow  and  arrow  ; 
as  god  of  music,  harp-player  or  leader  of  the  Muses,  he  is 
represented  in  a long  garment,  with  a cloak  reaching  to  his 
feet  and  the  lyre  in  his  hand  ; the  tripod  is  the  symbol  of 
Apollo'as  seer. 

From  the  earliest  times  the  olive  was  Apollons  tree.  The 
Delphic  wreath  of  victory  was  woven  of  simple  olive-twigs 
plucked  in  the  sacred  grove,  and  olive-trees  shaded  the 
sanctuary.  It  was  said  that  Apollo  had  changed  his  beloved 
Daphne  into  an  olive,  which  ever  after  remained  his  favourite 


60 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMFOS 


[chap. 


tree.  The  doe,  the  roe,  and  the  wolf  were  also  sacred  to 
Apollo.  The  swan,  far  in  the  north,  and  the  music-loving 


Fig.  it.  Apollo  {Vatican,  Rome), 


dolphins,  belong  to  the  retinue  of  Apollo  Musagetes.  Other 
sacred  animals  are  the  griffin  and  the  mouse. 

Poets  and  sculptors  often  made  Apollo  their  subject,  and 


II.] 


ARTEMIS 


6i 


they  conceived  him  as  a vigorous  blooming  youth  with  long 
flowing  locks.  The  famous  Belvedere  statue  in  Rome  shows 
Apollo  as  the  fighter,  who  puts  his  enemies  to  flight  by 
holding  out  his  aegis.  The  “ Musagetes  ” in  the  Vatican 
presents  the  god  of  music  in  a long  robe,  and  a whole  series 
of  beautiful  statues  have  survived  in  which  Apollo  is  repre- 
sented as  on  the  point  of  slaying  a lizard  just  running  up  a 
tree.  These  surviving  works  of  art  are  probably  to  be  referred 
to  an  original  Apollo  Sauroktonos  by  Praxiteles.  (Fig.  ii.) 

7.  Artemis  (Diana).* 

Artemis  was  daughter  of  Leto  and  twin-sister  of  Apollo. 
She  was  the  symbol  of  the  moon  and  the  night,  as  Apollo  of 
the  sun  and  the  day.  There  are  two  aspects  in  which  the 
moon  may  be  considered.  As  a mere  heavenly  body  Selene 
is  her  representative.  As  a power  influencing  the  life  of 
plants,  animals  and  men  all  over  the  earth,  she  is  personified 
as  Artemis.  The  myths  of  Selene  and  Helios  were  of  lesser 
importance ; those  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  had  a real  and 
religious  significance. 

The  myths  of  Artemis  are  very  numerous. 

In  hot  southern  countries  plants  and  fruits  thrive  best 
during  the  cool  of  night,  refreshed  by  the  heavy  dew  which 
for  many  months  together  takes  the  place  of  rain.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  dew  falls  most  heavily  when  the  sky 
is  clear  and  the  moon  bright — hence  it  was  said  to  be  the  gift 
of  Artemis.  She  was  believed  to  range  at  night  through 
forest,  mountain,  and  valley,  with  nymphs  of  the  springs  and 
groves  in  her  following,  herself  excelling  them  all  in  beauty 
and  stature.  She  was  worshipped  at  springs,  near  rivers. 


Andrew  Lang,  “ Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion.” 
Immerwahr,  “Mythen  und  Kulte  Arkadiens.” 


62 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


and  in  damp  meadow  marshes.  In  other  places  she  appears 
as  goddess  of  harp-playing  and  dancing,  while  Athene  and 
Aphrodite,  with  the  Muses,  Charites  and  nymphs,  were 
often  supposed  to  join  her  merry  sports.  The  fertilizing 
aspect  of  Artemis  may  be  derived  from  her  power  as  a 
moon-goddess,  while  as  patroness  of  music  she  was  no  doubt 
closely  connected  with  Apollo. 

One  of  the  functions  of  Artemis  was  to  preside  over  birth, 
in  this  office  she  is  called  Eileithyia^  a name  sometimes  borne 
by  Hera  for  the  same  reason.  In  general,  Artemis  appears 
as  a goddess  of  the  feminine  principle  in  nature  and  human 
life,  childhood  and  youth  are  under  her  special  protection, 
and  in  many  parts  of  Greece  festivals  of  dance  and  song  were 
celebrated  by  maidens  in  her  honour. 

Artemis  was  also  a death-goddess,  particularly  in  those 
forms  of  death  whose  causes  were  unknown  or  mysterious  ; 
any  one  who  died  suddenly  was  said  to  have  been  slain  by 
the  painless  darts  of  Apollo  or  Artemis.  Apollo  was  the 
slayer  of  men,  and  Artemis  of  women. 

As  the  light  of  the  moon  is  the  emblem  of  purity,  Artemis 
was  thought  of  as  a fair,  fresh  maiden,  patroness  of  all  chaste 
youths  and  girls,  whose  offerings  of  flower- wreaths  she 
received  in  spring.  In  this  aspect  she  was  worshipped  in 
Athens,  Corinth  and  Thebes. 

Through  her  function  as  goddess  of  fertility,  Artemis 
becomes  the  guardian  of  wild  animals  in  the  woods  and 
fields,  and  patroness  of  the  chase.  She  guards 

“ Every  feathered  mother’s  callow  brood, 

And  all  that  love  green  haunts  and  loneliness.”  * 

Among  primitive  tribes  in  wooded  countries  hunting  is  an 
important  occupation,  and  such  tribes  believed  that  wild,  no 
less  than  tame  animals,  especially  young  ones,  needed  special 


* R.  Browning. 


II.] 


ARTEMIS  OF  EPHESOS 


63 


divine  care.  In  archaic  works  of  art  Artemis  appears  clothed 
in  a skin  as  huntress,  sometimes  winged,  and  holding  young 
panthers  or  lions. 

Artemis,  while  still  very  young,  elected  to  remain  a virgin. 
Like  Athene,  she  was  devoted  to  strict  chastity,  and  punished 
with  great  severity  any  transgression  of  this  law  by  the 
nymphs  in  her  train.  Those  who  did  not  approach  her  with 
due  respect  must  suffer  for  their  fault;  when  the  Grecian 
armament  was  ready  to  sail  to  Troy  she  detained  them  by 
storms  in  the  harbour  of  Aulis,  because  the  leader,  Aga- 
memnon, had  killed  a fawn  sacred  to  her,  and  she  punished 
the  Aitolians  by  letting  loose  on  their  country  the  wild 
Kalydonian  boar,  .which  devastated  their  fields  till  Melea- 
gros  slew  it.  Those  who  offended  her  divine  modesty 
were  punished  with  severity,  even  cruelty.  Such  were 
Orion ^ who  pursued  her  with  lawless  love,  and  Actaion^ 
who  surprised  her  in  the  bath,  and  was  transformed  into  a 
stag  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  his  own  hounds.  As  the  aveng- 
ing death-goddess,  she  slew  the,  daughters  of  the  proud 
Theban  queen,  Niobe. 

The  chase  was  Artemis^  favourite  pastime,  and,  like  Apollo, 
she  never  missed  her  mark.  (Fig.  12.) 

In  Asia  Minor  in  very  early  times  there  was  a strange 
confusion  between  the  true  Greek  Artemis  and  indigenous 
Eastern  divinities,  of  whom  the  famous  Artemis  of  Ephesos 
was  the  most  important.  She  was  not  the  chaste  maiden 
goddess  whom  we  know  in  Greece,  but  the  many-breasted 
nurse  and  foster-mother  of  the  life  of  nature.  Her  sanctuary 
was  the  religious  centre  for  all  the  lonians,  for  they  had 
adopted  into  their  custom  and  ritual  some  essential  features 
of  the  popular  faiths  of  Asia.  Her  temple  in  Ephesos  was 
adorned  with  columns,  pictures  and  rich  votive  gifts  ; her 
festivals  were  celebrated  with  great  pomp,  in  the  excited  and 


64 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


enthusiastic  manner  which  we  associate  with  the  worship  of 
Rhea,  and  which  we  shali  observe  again  in  the  cultus  of 
Dionysos.  This  splendid  sanctuary  was  accounted  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Herostratos  of  Ephesos 


set  fire  to  it  for  the  sake  of  notoriety,  and  legend  said  that 
on  the  very  night  in  which  its  smoking  ruins  fell,  Alexander 
the  Great  was  born.  The  fall  of  the  temple  was  interpreted 
(after  the  event)  as  a forecast  of  the  ruin  of  the  Persian 


tl.] 


ARTEMIS  OF  TAURIS 


65 


Empire.  Alexander  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Artemis  on  a 
more  magnificent  scale,  and  we  know  that  when  Saint 
Paul  came  to  Ephesos  the  worship  of  the  goddess  was  still 
at  its  height,  for  the  goldsmiths  of  the  city  were  making 
large  sums  of  money  by  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  little 
temple  images. 

The  Artemis  who  was  worshipped  at  Tauris  on  the  Black 
Sea  was  a gloomy,  cruel  divinity,  in  front  of  whose  statue 
Orestes  was  to  be  sacrificed  by  the  hand  of  his  own  sister. 
Such  human  victims  were  offered  to  Artemis  Orthia  or 
Orthosia^  in  Sparta,  from  very  early  times.  One  legend  told 
that  Orestes  had  brought  the  image  of  the  goddess  from 
Tauris  to  Peloponnesos,  and  thus  introduced  her  worship. 
Another  story  was  that  the  image  fell  down  from  heaven, 
and  was  found  in  a thicket  by  two  Lakonians,  who  were  at 
once  struck  with  madness.  Bloody  strife  arose  about  the 
possession  of  the  image,  and  to  expiate  this  bloodshed,  yearly 
human  sacrifices  were  instituted,  which  were  afterwards 
abolished  by  Lykourgos  and  replaced  by  scourging  of  boys. 

As  goddess  of  fertility  and  health  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  world  Artemis  was  worshipped  in  Lakonia  and 
Messene  with  country  songs,  dances,  and  merriment.  In 
Athens  she  had  a temple  on  the  Ilissos,  where  she  appears 
both  as  warrior  goddess  and  as  huntress.  Her  most  im- 
portant festival  in  Athens  was  the  Elaphebolia  in  spring, 
when  five  hundred  goats  were  sacrificed  to  her  in  memory 
of  the  victory  of  Marathon.  In  the  month  Munychion  round 
cakes  representing  the  full  moon  were  ornamented  with 
candles  and  offered  to  her. 

Some  very  ancient  representations  of  the  winged  Artemis 
are  still  extant.  As  guardian  of  wild  beasts  she  holds  in 
each  hand  a panther  or  a lion,  and  sometimes  a stag.  Later, 
as  her  huntress  aspect  was  more  emphasized,  she  was  repre- 

6 


66 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


sented  attended  by  a hind,  carrying  bow  and  arrows,  and  a 
quiver  on  her  shoulder,  with  high-girt  raiment  and  close- 
bound  hair,  speeding  after  the  quarry.  She  is  the  type  of 
maidenly  dignity  and  beauty,  and  is  praised  as  ‘‘  Fairest  by 
the  poets. 

8.  Kindred.  Divinities  to  Apollo  and  Artemis. 

(a)  Gods  of  Lights 

I.  Helios  (Sol).  While  the  Greeks  acknowledged  Apollo 
as  the  god  of  the  all-pervading  light  of  day,  Helios  was,  in 
a more  limited  sense,  the  personification  of  the  sun  in  his 
daily  and  yearly  course.  Like  his  sister  Eos^  the  dawn, 
Helios  drove  a chariot  with  four  white  fire-breathing 
horses.  He  rose  at  morning  from  the  river  Okeanos, 
drove  up  the  vault  of  heaven,  and  sank  in  the  evening 
with  his  weary  horses  into  the  cool  waves  of  the  sea,  to 
pass  the  night  in  the  golden  palace  of  Thetis. 

Helios  was  called  a son  of  Hyperion  and  Theia,  His 
wife  Perse^  an  Okeanid,  bore  him  Aietes  and  Kirke, 
Helios  was  worshipped  in  different  places,  especially  on  the 
sea,  out  of  which  he  rose,  and  on  high  mountains,  where 
he  was  first  seen.  Rhodes  was  specially  sacred  to  him,  for 
when  the  world  was  divided,  it  had  fallen  to  his  share  of 
possessions.  There  stood  his  huge  statue,  known  as  the 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  and  counted  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  In  the  hot  season,  when  the  sun’s  rays  have 
most  power,  a festival  called  the  Heliaia,  was  held  in  his 
honour,  when  horses  were  thrown  from  the  heights  into  the 
sea  as  offerings  to  him,  chariot  races  were  run  and  athletic 
contests  fought.  Dorians  from  the  neighbouring  islands 
came  in  crowds  to  this  festival. 

* W.  H.  Roscher,  “ Selene  und  Verwandtes.’* 


II.] 


HELIOS  AND  PHAETHON 


67 


The  Odyssey  tells  of  the  sacred  herds  of  Helios  on  the 
island  Trinakria  : seven  heads  of  cattle,  and  as  many  of  sheep, 
which  neither  increased  nor  diminished  in  number,  pastured 
there  under  the  care  of  the  nymphs,  and  were  the  proudest 
possession  of  the  god. 

Just  as  Apollo  enjoyed  the  homage  of  the  faithful  pious 
Hyperboreans  of  the  North,  Helios  was  the  special  divinity 
of  the  Aithiopoi,  a sacred  nation,  who  were  supposed  to 
live  in  the  Far  East,  where  Helios  rose  out  of  the  sea,  to 
be  richly  endowed  with  wealth  by  the  god,  and  to  enjoy 
perpetual  peace  and  a harvest  all  the  year  round. 

Helios  had  a number  of  children,  but  by  far  the  most 
famous  was  PhaUhon^  whom  Klyme^te  bore  him.  On 
one  occasion  Phaethon  had  been  quarrelling  with  Epaphos, 
son  of  Zeus  and  lo,  about  his  own  origin,  and  he  begged 
Helios  to  prove  his  fatherhood  by  granting  him  a single 
request.  When  Helios  had  sworn  by  the  Styx  to  agree  to 
what  he  should  ask,  Phaethon  begged  to  be  allowed  to  drive 
the  sun-chariot  for  one  day.  Helios  was  startled  by  this 
foolhardiness,  and  well  knowing  what  dangers  his  dear  son 
would  incur,  he  tried  to  dissuade  him  from  his  purpose. 
But  it  was  all  in  vain,  Phaethon  only  besought  more  eagerly, 
and  as  Helios  was  bound  by  the  gods’  most  sacred  oath,  he 
was  obliged  to  give  way  in  spite  of  his  sorrow.  The  youth, 
who  did  not  know  the  course  of  the  sun,  soon  lost  control 
of  his  team,  as  Helios  had  foreseen,  his  senses  became  con 
fused,  and  his  strength  failed.  The  fiery  steeds  left  the 
track,  and  at  last  brought  the  glowing  chariot  so  near  the 
earth,  that  the  soil  cracked  with  the  heat,  the  springs  dried 
up,  rivers  and  seas  began  to  boil,  and  some  races  of  men 
were  burnt  black.  Zeus  was  alarmed  and  surprised  at  this 
new  danger  threatening  earth,  and  to  put  a stop  to  the 
wholesale  destruction,  he  hurled  his  thunderbolt  at  Phaethon, 
who  fell  dead  from  the  chariot  into  the  river  Eridanos. 


68 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap, 


Phaethon’s  three  sisters,  the  Heliades^  or  daughters  of  the 
sun,  Pha'ethiisa^  Aigle^  and  Lampetia^  wept  long  for  him, 
and  were  turned  into  poplar  trees,  which  stood,  still 
shedding  tears,  on  the  banks  of  the  Eridanos.  Helios 
changed  the  tears  of  his  daughters  into  electron,  or  amber, 
a substance  on  which  the  Greeks  set  a high  value. 

Phaethon’s  friend,  Kyknos^  who  died  of  grief  for  his 


i'lG.  13.  Helios-relie  {Jr^m  Troy), 

loss,  lived  on  afterwards  in  the  form  of  a swan.  Helios 
himself,  full  of  sorrow  at  his  son’s  death,  of  which  his  own 
ill-considered  oath  had  been  the  cause,  could  hardly  be  per- 
suaded by  the  entreaties  of  the  gods  to  take  the  guidance 
of  the  sun-car  again  into  his  hands.  Artists  represent  Helios 
as  a youthful  charioteer  with  a crown  of  rays.  (Fig.  13.) 
The  Romans  saw  in  Sol  the  type  of  a vigorous,  skilful 


II.1 


SELENE  AND  EOS 


69 


charioteer,  and  therefore  they  placed  him  among  their  gods, 
and  ascribed  to  him  the  patronage  of  race-courses  and 
chariot  contests. 

2.  Selene  (Luna),  the  gentle  goddess  of  the  moon,  bears 
the  same  relation  to  Artemis  as  Helios  to  Phoibos  Apollo. 
According  to  the  usual  conception,  she  was  a young  and 
beautiful  woman,  daughter  of  Hyperion^  or  Pallas,  and 
sister  of  Helios.  All  the  stars  must  disappear  before  her 
light,  and  when  Helios  sinks  with  his  four-horse  chariot 
into  the  ocean,  Selene,  driving  her  pair  of  white  horses, 
and  veiled  in  a wide  flowing  cloak,  follows  his  track  over 
the  heavens,  or  fades  before  him.  Her  attribute  is  a crescent 
over  the  forehead,  and  sometimes  a torch. 

The  story  of  Selene  and  Endymion^  her  beloved,  was  a 
favourite  subject  in  poetry  and  sculpture.  Plunged  by 
Zeus  into  eternal  slumber,  the  youthful  shepherd  rests  in 
a cave  of  Mount  Latmos,  in  Karia,  and  is  visited  every  night 
by  the  goddess. 

3.  Eos  (Aurora),  the  morning  glow,  also  called  Hemera^ 
goddess  of  the  day,  was  a daughter  of  the  Titan  Hyperion  and 
of  a Titaness  Theia — hence  she  is  sister  to  Helios  and  Selene. 
She  is  the  rosy  light  which  ushers  in  the  day  and'  drives 
away  the  twilight.  As  she  appears,  Selene  and  the  stars 
grow  pale  ; but  she,  too,  must  flee  before  the  strong  rays  of 
the  sun,  who  follows  close  upon  her  steps.  The  poets  tell 
how  she  draws  back  with  rosy  fingers  the  veil  of  night, 
rising  from  Okeanos  in  the  East,  on  her  car  drawn  by  white 
horses,  and  bringing  with  her  the  first  light  of  day.  Others 
say  that  the  winged  horse  PegasoSj  after  he  had  thrown 
Bellerophon,  the  brave  and  over-bold  hero,  who  tried  to  ride 
to  Olympos,  was  given  to  Eos  by  Zeus. 

Eos  was  wedded  to  Aslraios,  a Titan  god  of  starlight,  and 
bore  the  four  winds,  Zephyros^  Boreas^  Notos  and  Euros^ 


70 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


And  the  Stuv , This  myth  may  have  its  origin  in 

the  circumstance,  that  when  the  dawn  has  broken,  the  stars 
have  not  yet  disappeared,  and  that  when  Eos  and  Astraios 
are  married,  a fresh  invigorating  wind  arises,  scattering  the 
mist  or  spreading  it  as  dew  on  the  ground. 

Eos  had  many  favourites  among  the  hunters  whom  she 
met  at  early  dawn  in  the  woods.  She  carried  off  four  such  : 
Orion^  Kleitos,  Kephalos  (Fig.  14),  and  Tithonos.  For  Ti- 
thonos,  Eos  begged  immortality  from  the  gods,  but  she  forgot 
to  add  a request  for  eternal  youth  ; so  while  the  goddess  re- 
mained a youthful  maiden,  Tithonos  grew  weak  and  withered, 


Fig.  14.  Blacas  K rater : Eos  pursues  Kephalos  at  sunrise  [British  Museum). 


until  he  was  tired  of  life,  and  the  gods  out  of  pity  changed 
liim  into  a grasshopper. 

The  story  of  Kephalos  and  Prokrts  is  well  known.  When 
Kephalos  was  carried  off  by  Aurora,  Prokris,  his  wife,  who 
loved  him  tenderly,  sought  for  him  everywhere,  and,  stung 
by  jealousy,  hid  herself  in  a thicket,  that  she  might  spy  his 
meeting  with  the  goddess.  Kephalos,  thinking  he  saw  some 
wild  animal  stirring  in  the  thicket,  cast  his  spear  and  killed 
Prokris.* 

“ I heard  the  rustle  of  a falling  leaf 

As  though  a beast  were  stirring  in  the  brake, 

So  drew  my  bow  and  sped  a flying  shaft ; 

But  Procris  in  her  breast  received  the  wound, 


* J.  E.  Harrison,  **  Mythology  and  Monuments,’*  Ix.-lxiii. 


II.] 


STARS 


71 


And  cried  ‘ Alas  ’ ! and  when  I heard  the  cry 
My  senses  reeled,  I ran,  and  in  my  arms, 

These  guilty  arms,  I lifted,  scarce  alive. 

Her  who  was  dearer  than  myself  to  me.”  * 

The  son  of  Tithonos  and  Eos  was  Memnon^  an  ally  of  the 
Trojans,  remarkable  for  his  beauty.  He  came  from  Ethiopia, 
for  all  divinities  of  light  have  their  origin  in  the  East. 
When  he  had  fallen  by  the  hand  of  Achilles  his  mourning 
mother  bore  him  to  his  home,  where  he  was  long  honoured 
as  a hero  cut  off  in  youth,  and  the  ancients  reported  that  the 
marvellous  pillars  near  the  Egyptian  Thebes,  whose  peculiar 
property  it  was,  when  the  first  rays  of  dawn  fell  on  them, 
to  utter  a sound  like  the  breaking  of  a lyre  string,  had  been 
erected  by  Eos  to  her  son.  When  the  Persian  king,  Kam- 
byses,  subjugated  Egypt  he  caused  these  famous  monuments 
to  be  thrown  down.  Their  fragments  still  excite  the 
astonishment  of  all  travellers,  although  it  has  long  since 
been  proved  that  they  are  the  monuments  of  ancient 
Egyptian  kings,  and  have  nothing  to  do  with  Memnon. 

4.  Stars.  Most  of  the  Greek  legends  about  stars  were 
connected  with  those  which  affected  man’s  character  and 
destiny  by  their  conjunction,  or  exercised  by  their  ap- 
pearance at  stated  times  a powerful  influence  on  the  crops 
and  the  weather. 

The  morning  and  evening  stars  were  called  Phosphoros 
and  Hesperos^  twin-brothers,  sons  of  Eos  and  Kephalos. 
Phosphoros,  the  only  star  which  does  not  pale  before  the 
dawn,  was  represented  as  the  forerunner  of  Eos,  carrying  a 
torch  ; Hesperos,  as  the  usher  of  night.  Stars  are  represented 
in  art  as  young  boys. 

The  constellation  of  Orion  is  remarkable  for  its  brilliancy 
and  beauty.  He  was  a strong  giant,  who  loved  the  chase, 


* Ovid,  Met.  vii. 


72 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


and  pursued  it  even  in  the  underworld,  where  Odysseus 
met  him.  His  early  setting  in  autumn  announced  the 
winter  and  storms  at  sea,  and  hence  he  was  called  a son 
of  Poseidon  and  a sea  nymph. 

Scirios^  the  dog-star,  brings  in  the  hot  season,  when  the 
glowing  sky  threatens  to  dry  up  and  wither  all  vegetation. 
His  baneful  influence  is  figured  in  the  story  of  Actaion^  the 
youthful  hunter  who  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  dogs, 
maddened  by  the  heat.  Aristaios^^  son  of  Apollo  and  a 
nymph,  was  invoked  as  a protector  against  the  destructive 
rage  of  the  dog^star.  Mother  Earth  had  taught  him  how  to 
tend  the  flocks  and  how  to  pacify  Scirios  with  sacrifices  and 
expiations. 

Husbandmen  watched  eagerly  for  the  Pleiades,  for  when 
they  appeared  in  the  sky,  it  was  time  to  sow  the  corn. 
There  were  seven  Pleiades,  and  all  but  one,  Merope^  were 
immortal.  Legends  of  the  Pleiades  are  closely  bound  up 
with  those  of  other  gods.  Their  rising  was  a favourable 
sign  to  seamen,  for  they  brought  the  summer  calms, 
whereas  the  Hyades  were  heralds  of  the  rainy  and  stormy 
months.  The  Pleiades  had  been  translated  to  the  sky  with 
Orion  because  he  was  always  pursuing  them,  and  the  Hyades, 
because  they  could  not  be  comforted  for  the  loss  of  their 
brother,  Hylas,  who  had  perished  while  hunting. 

With  the  constellation  of  the  Bear,  which  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  sky  all  the  year  round,  is  connected  the  story  of  Kallisto, 
the  playmate  of  Artemis.  She  was  beloved  by  Zeus,  and 
after  she  had  borne  him  Arkas  she  was  placed  in  the  sky  as 
the  Bear,  to  be  safe  from  the  vengeance  of  Artemis. 

The  ancient  Greeks  did  not  know  the  great  mass  of  con- 
stellations which  fill  the  sky  and  whose  names  are  familiar  to 


* Franz  Studniczka,  “ Kyrene,”  ch.  vi. 


II.] 


HE  KATE 


73 


us,  for  maps  of  the  heavens  date  from  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  when  the  learned  men  of  Alexandria  began  to 
study  the  astronomical  notions  of  the  Egyptians,  and  of  the 
ancient  Asiatic  peoples. 

5.  Hekate*  is  in  some  legends  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and 
of  Demeter  or  Pheraia,  Other  traditions  make  the  Titan 
Perses  her  father,  and  Asteria^  the  sister  of  Leto, . her 
< mother.  She  has  a close  connection  with  Artemis,  who  is 
even  sometimes  called  Artemis- Hekate^  and  as  she  too  is  a 
goddess  of  night  and  darkness,  is  often  placed  in  the  retinue 
of  Pluto  and  Persephone.  Streets  and  gates  were  sacred  to 
Hekate.  She  was  supposed  to  be  seen  at  cross-roads,  where 
at  night  gloomy  ghosts,  apparitions  and  horrid  shades, 
over  whom  she  was  queen,  held  their  revels.  The  famous 
sorceresses,  Kirke  and  Medeia,  were  called  her  handmaidens ; 
all  the  hidden  forces  of  Nature  were  under  her  control ; she 
presided  over  Life,  Birth,  and  Death,  and  received  high 
honour  in  Olympos  as  in  the  underworld.  Popular  belief 
long  preserved  this  gloomy,  mysterious  side  of  her  nature. 

Hekate-worship  was  often  combined  with  that  of  other 
gods,  such  as  Demeter,  Apollo  and  Artemis.  In  Aigina  and 
in  Asia  Minor  she  had  a temple  of  her  own  ; in  many  towns 
the  gateways  were  sacred  to  her,  and  little  shrines  in  her 
honour  were  erected  in  the  streets.  Her  ritual  was  per- 
formed at  night  by  torchlight,  she  herself  was  represented 
as  holding  one  or  two  torches,  black  lambs  and  dogs  were 
offered  to  her  at  the  cross-roads,  and  the  dog,  the  underworld 
animal,  was  sacred  to  her.  Later  art  represented  Hekate  as 
a triple  goddess,  and  the  famous  sculptor,  Alkamenes,  set  up 
such  a statue  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  (Fig.  15.) 

; “ Oesterreichische  Mittheilungen,”  Jahrgang  iv.  Heft  2 (for  Hekate). 

■ - J.  E.  Harrison,  “Mythology  and  Monuments,”  Div.  D,  Sects,  xv. 
and  xxii. 


74 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS' 


[chap. 


6.  The  name  of  Mithras  introduces  us  to  a new  period. 
The  cultus  of  this  divinity,  who  was  originally  a Persian 
Sun-god,  became  general  in  the  last  years  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  It  was  brought  to  Germany  by  the  Roman  legions, 
and  enjoyed  great  popularity,  as  is  proved  by  the  numerous 
sanctuaries  of  Mithras  discovered  north  of  the  Alps  and  in 
the  Rhine  country. 


Fig.  15.  Hekate  {Capitol,  Rome). 


The  Roman  name  of  this  god  is  Sol,  Later  Roman 
emperors  commanded  their  subjects  to  worship  them  as 
children  of  the  Sun,  and  as  visible  embodiments  of  the 
power  and  splendour  of  the  empire.  Hence  the  wide  area 
of  sun-worship.  When  Paganism  was  passing  away,  the 
ritual  of  Mithras  was  the  last  refuge  of  those  who  clung  to 
the  old  gods  and  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  Christianity. 


II.] 


MITHRAS 


75 


His  mysteries  were  celebrated  all  over  the  Roman  world,  and 
wherever  Roman  armies  have  been,  we  find  representations 
of  the  god  as  a youth  in  Asiatic  garments,  with  a Phrygian 
cap  on  his  head. 

A statue  in  the  Vatican  shows  us  Mithras  victorious,  just 
plunging  a knife  into  the  throat  of  a dying  bull.  (Fig.  i6.) 


Fig.  1 6.  Mithras  ( Vatican,  Rome) . 


Originally  Mithras  was  worshipped  in  subterranean  caverns, 
of  which  some  have  been  found.  The  god  is  represented 
surrounded  by  animals  of  all  kinds,  and  attended  by  two 
youths  in  Asiatic  attire,  carrying  each  a torch,  one  raised  and 
one  inverted.  Worshippers  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries 
of  Mithras  by  many  strange  rites  which  professed  to  teach 


76 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


sacred  doctrine  on  the  origin  of  the  Universe  and  the  fate  of 
man  after  death.  These  rites  survived  to  Christian  times,  and 
were  the  subject  of  great  opposition  from  Christian  teachers. 

6.  AiOLOS  (^olus)  AND  THE  WiNDS.* 

Aiolos  was  king  of  the  winds,  and  lived  on  a high,  steep 
island,  which  later  Greeks  tried  to  identify  with  one  of  the 
Lipari  islands  near  Sicily.  Although  Earth  and  Sea  had 
often  to  suffer  from  the  storms  which  he  raised,  he  appears 
from  time  to  time  as  the  hospitable  friend  of  seamen. 

When  Odysseus  had  lived  for  a whole  month  in  the  palace 
of  Aiolos,  he  took  with  him  on  his  departure  a sack  contain- 
ing the  winds.  His  companions  opened  the  sack,  let  loose 
the  adverse  winds,  and  thus  forfeited  the  favour  of  the  gods. 
Aiolos  was  the  son  of  King  Hippotes.  He  had  six  sons,  whonrRjLa 
had  married  to  his  six  daughters,  and  they  lived  an  easy, 
jovial  life  together  in  the  enjoyment  of  feasting  and  song. 
Under  the  hollow  rocks  of  the  island  was  the  dungeon  of  the 
winds,  whom  Aiolos  alone  could  control,  and  whom  he  would 
set  free  one  at  a time,  as  the  Olympian  gods  required. 

Other  legends  represent  the  winds  as  independent  divine 
beings,  living  in  separate  homes,  and  obeying  only  the  com- 
mands of  Zeus  and  Poseidon. 

Notos^  Zephyr  os  and  Euros  were  gentle  and  beneficent 
winds,  who  brought  fresh  life  to  the  fields.  These  three, 
with  their  brother,  rough  Boreas^  have  already  been  spoken 
of  as  sons  of  Eos  and  Astraios.  , The  destructive  whirlwinds 
and  the  parching  scirocco  from  the  south  were  called  the  off- 
spring of  Typhon. 

In  very  early  times  only  four  chief  winds  were  known,  and 
they  lived,  as  we  have  seen,  in  mountain  caves  and  rocky 

* J.  E.  Harrison,  “ Myths  of  the  Odyssey  in  Art  and  Literature,” 
ch.  ii.  (the  Laestrygones). 


II.] 


AO  I LOS  AND  ASKLEPIOS 


77 


islands.  They  were  uproarious  fellows,  always  ready  for 
mischief,  and  Boreas  was  the  wildest  and  most  lawless  of 
them  all.  He  carried  off  Oreithyia  to  his  northern  fortress, 
and  from  this  marriage  sprang  the  winged  heroes  Kaldis 
and  Zetos^  companions  of  the  Argonauts. 

The  winds  were  chiefly  worshipped  as  gods  of  navigation. 
Sacrifices  were  made  to  them  when  a ship  left  or  entered  a 
port.  Special  sanctuaries  were  built  for  them,  for  example, 

The  Tower  of  the  Winds  ” at  Athens,  on  which  are  still  to 
be  seen  sculptures  representing  eight  winds.  The  Athenians 
paid  peculiar  honours  to  Boreas  because  he  had  shattered  the 
Persian  fleet  off  the  promontory  of  Mount  Athos,  and  a 
sanctuary  was  dedicated  to  him  on  the  promontory. 

(c)  Gods  of  Healing, 

I.  Asklepios  * (Aesculapius).  We  have  seen  that  Apollo 
exercised  the  healing  craft,  but  this  function  belonged  more 
specially  to  his  son,  Asklepios.  The  mother  of  Asklepios 
was  Koronis^  daughter  of  a Thessalian  prince.  She  was  slain 
by  the  arrows  of  Artemis  before  she  could  bring  forth  her 
child,  but  Apollo  saved  his  son,  took  him  to  Mount  Pelion, 
and  gave  him  to  the  famous  Centaur  physician,  Cheiron^  to 
rear.  Cheiron  taught  the  child  to  hunt,  and  instructed  him 
diligently  in  medicine  till  Asklepios  soon  became  a more 
skilful  leech  than  his  master,  and  could  work  marvellous 
cures  on  those  at  the  point  of  death.  He  enjoyed  perfect 
health  and  vigour,  was  never  weary  of  pursuing  game 
through  the  forests,  and  delighted  in  clear  springs,  fresh  air 
and  brilliant  sunshine.  Asklepios  was  present  at  many  a 
famous  hunt,  and  legend  says  that  he  was  among  the 
comrades  of  Meleagros,  who  killed  the  boar  of  Kalydon. 


* J.  E.  Harrison,  “ Mythology  and  Monuments,”  Div.  C.,  Sect.  xiii. 


78 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


Asklepios  saved  so  many  men  from  death  that  Plouton, 
finding  the  number  of  his  shadow-subjects  decreased,  made 
complaint  to  Zeus.  Zeus  was  enraged  to  learn  that  a mere 
mortal  had  dared  to  resist  the  decrees  of  fate,  and  he  struck 
Asklepios  with  his  thunderbolt.  Apollo  took  the  death  of 
his  son  so  much  to  heart  that  Zeus  was  offended,  and  banished 
him  from  Olympos  for  a time.  Asklepios  was  worshipped 
as  a god  in  many  places  after  his  death,  the  festival  of  the 
Asklepiaia  was  held  in  his  honour,  and  temples  were  built 
to  him.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  at  Epidauros  in  the 
Peloponnesos  ; the  sick  from  all  parts  of  Greece  made 
pilgrimages  to  this  shrine,  where  the  god  revealed  to  them 
in  dreams  the  meai  iS  of  recovery.  The  worship  of  Asklepios 
continued  till  later  times.  In  290  B.C.,  when  a plague  was 
raging  in  Rome,  ten  ambassadors  were  sent  to  learn  the  will 
of  the  Oracle.  As  they  entered  the  temple,  a snake,  Askle- 
pios’ sacred  animal,  crept  out  of  the  beautiful  gold  and  ivory 
statue  of  the  god.  It  followed  them  through  the  streets  of 
Epidauros  down  to  the  harbour,  and  embarked  with  them 
on  the  ship.  Joyfully  they  received  the  beast  into  their  tent 
on  the  ship’s  deck,  and  sailed  back  to  Italy.  When  they 
touched  at  Antium  the  snake  left  the  ship  and  entered  the 
sacred  grove  of  Apollo,  but  soon  returned,  and  did  not  leave 
them  again  until  they  had  reached  the  Tiber,  when  it  swam 
to  an  island  in  the  river  and  there  stayed.  The  plague 
ceased,  and  a temple  was  built  to  ^sculapius  on  the  spot. 
In  this  way  the  cultus  was  introduced  into  Rome,  which  in  its 
essential  features  reproduced  that  of  the  Greek  god.  Persons 
who  had  recovered  by  the  help  of  the  god  used  to  write  on 
a little  tablet  a short  account  of  their  symptoms  and  the 
medicines  which  they  had  used  with  good  effect.  These 
tablets  were  hung  up  in  the  temple  for  the  profit  of  future 
patients  and  the  instruction  of  physicians. 


II.] 


THE  ROMAN  ^SCULAPIUS 


79 


The  beautiful  and  fertile  island  Kos  was  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  cult  of  Asklepios,  for  there  dwelt  the  clan 
of  the  Asklepiadai,  and  the  greatest  physician  of  antiquity, 


Fig.  17.  Asklepios  (^Vatican,  Rome), 


Hippokrates,^  all  of  whom  claimed  descent  from  the  god. 
(Figs.  17,  18.) 

In  plastic  art  Asklepios  is  represented  either  standing,  or 
seated  on  a throne.  The  temple  statues  of  the  god  were 


So 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[CHAP. 


usually  of  gold  and  ivory,  and  bore  some  resemblance  to  those 
of  Zeus.  He  appears  as  a man  of  full  age,  bearded,  and  of 
serious  and  kindly  aspect,  or,  again,  as  a youth  resembling 


Fig.  i8.  Bas-relief  Irom  Epidauros : Asklepios  (^Central  Museum^  Athens), 


his  father,  Apollo.  Asklepios  has  various  attributes.  The 
snake  is  the  symbol  of  the  underworld  wisdom  and  mantic 
healing,  the  cock  was  offered  to  him  by  those  who  had 


II.] 


HYGIEIA  AND  TELESPHOROS 


8i 


recovered  from  any  sickness,*  the  staff  is  his  divining  rod, 
and  the  cup  is  the  symbol  of  medicine. 

Among  the  children  of  Asklepios,  Hygieia  is  specially 
named,  and  he  had  to  wife  Epione^  the  soothing  one.  He 
himself,  like  so  many  other  gods,  was  translated  to  the  sky 
as  a constellation. 

2.  Hygieia  is  the  daughter,  or  sometimes  the  wife  of 
Asklepios.  She  is  the  goddess  of  fresh  youth  and  health, 
and  appears  with  a wreath  on  her  head  and  a drinking- 
cup  in  her  hand.  Sometimes  a snake  is  coiling  round 
her  arm  and  sipping  from  the  cup. 

3.  Telesphoros  was  worshipped  in  Asia.  Minor,  principally 
in  Pergamon.  He  was  the  genius  of  convalescence,  and 
guarded  those  who  had  lately  recovered  from  a relapse 
into  their  former  illness.  Telesphoros  is  often  represented 
with  Asklepios,  or  between  him  and  Hygieia,  as  a little 
bare-footed  boy,  wrapped  in  a mantle,  with  a hood  over 
his  head. 


The  Muses  were  daughters  of  Eeus  and  the  Titanid 
Mnemosyne.  They  were  chiefly  worshipped  in  the  district 
of  Pieria,  near  Olympos,  a rich,  well-watered  country,  whose 
springs  were  said  to  inspire  those  who  drank  of  them. 
Hence  the  Muses  were  probably  first  thought  of  as  nymphs 
of  the  springs.  Their  cult  spread  to  Mount  Helikon,  in 
Boeotia,  and  to  other  places  in  Greece.  There  was  a legend 
that  Pieros,  a Thracian,  caused  his  nine  daughters — to  whom 
he  had  given  the  names  of  the  Muses — to  compete  with  them 
in  song,  that  the  mortal  maidens  were  defeated  and  changed 
into  singing-birds,  who  flew  far  and  wide,  thus  making  the 
names  of  the  Muses  known  all  over  Greece.  In  Helikon 


(d')  The  Muses  and  Mnemosyne.^ 


* Plato,  “ Phaedo”  (sub  fin). 
® Oscar  Bie,  “Die  Musen.’ 

7 


82 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


there  was  a grove,  containing  the  sacred  springs  Aganippe 
and  Hippokrene^  where  the  worship  of  the  Muses  was  carried 
on  even  in  later  times. 

The  Muses  were  goddesses  of  music,  song  and  poetry,  in 
fact,  of  all  the  fine  arts  and  noble  sciences.  They  loved  the 
summits  of  Helikon,  Parnassus  and  Pindus,  with  their 
sacred  springs,  and  they  came  to  the  feasts  of  the  gods 
on  Olympos,  led  by  Apollo,  when  they  would  delight  the 
Immortals  with  their  songs  of  the  might  and  victories 
of  Zeus,  and  even  of  the  exploits  of  mortal  heroes  on  whom 
the  gods  looked  with  favour.  They  were  present  at  festivals 
like  the  wedding  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  where  they  sang  their 
song : 

“Beauty  is  ours. 

Be  this  our  care 
To  hate  the  foul 
And  love  the  fair,”  * 

and  shared  in  mortal  grief  as  at  the  death  of  Achilles. 
All  poets  and  singers  were  supposed  to  be  akin  to  Apollo 
and  the  Muses,  but  they  punished  all  those  who  attempted 
to  rival  them  in  the  art  of  music.  Such  were  the 
daughters  of  Pieros^  the  Sirens^  and  Thamyris^  the  bard. 
The  minstrels  of  olden  time  began  their  songs  by  an  invoca- 
tion to  the  Muse,  a custom  which  has  been  often  imitated 
by  modern  poets.  Art  collections  and  libraries  were  under 
their  protection — hence  the  name  Museum,  which  we  still 
use.  Libations  were  offered  to  the  muses  consisting  of 
water,  milk  and  honey. 

“ What  forms  are  these  coming 
So  white  through  the  gloom  ? 

What  garments  outglistening 
The  gold- flowered  broom  ? 


' See  Theognis,  xv. 


II.1 


THE  MUSES 


83 


What  sweet-breathing  presence 
Out-perfumes  the  thyme  ? 

What  voices  enrapture 
The  night’s  balmy  prime? 

’Tis  Apollo  comes  leading 
His  choir  the  Nine — 

The  leader  is  fairest. 

But  all  are  divine. 

First  hymn  they  the  Father 
Of  all  things  ; and  then 
The  rest  of  immortals, 

The  action  of  men. 

The  day  in  his  hotness, 

The  strife  with  the  palm  ; 

The  night  in  her  silence, 

The  stars  in  their  calm.”  * 

Sometimes  the  Muses  are  three,  daughters  of  Ouranos  and 
Gaia,  and  sisters  of  Kronos  and  the  Titans. 

It  was  only  in  later  times  that  different  functions  were 
assigned  to  separate  Muses,  and  distinctions  made  in  the 
manner  of  representing  them,  as  follows  : — 

1.  Klio^  the  muse  of  history,  holds  a half-opened  roll  of 
parchment  and  a pen,  while  a chest  containing  other  rolls  is 
placed  beside  her. 

2.  Melpomene  (Fig.  19),  the  muse  of  tragedy  and  elegiac 
poetry,  is  a tall,  grave  figure  in  the  flowing  garment  worn 
by  tragic  actors.  Her  left  foot  is  raised  on  a rock,  and  she 
holds  a tragic  mask  in  her  hand.  Sometimes  she  holds  a 
club  or  some  other  attribute  of  a famous  hero. 

3.  Thalia^  the  muse  of  comedy  and  Bacchic  poetry,  appears 
in  the  dress  of  a Bacchante,  holding  in  one  hand  a shepherd^s 
crook  or  a thyrsos,  and  in  the  other  a comic  mask  (Fig.  20). 

4.  Kalliope^  the  muse  of  heroic  song,  is  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  nine,  and  sometimes  appears  alone  to  repre- 


* Matthew  Arnold. 


84 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  VMPOS 


[chap. 


sent  all  her  sisters.  She  is  represented  seated,  with  a tablet 
and  pen,  or  standing,  crowned,  with  a roll  of  writing  in  her 
hand,  or  again,  with  a trumpet  wreathed  with  laurel  twigs, 
through  which  she  proclaims  the  deeds  of  heroes. 


Fig.  19.  Melpomene  (Vatican,  Rome). 


5.  Oiirania^  the  heavenly  one,  is  the  muse  of  astronomy. 
A globe  of  the  heavens,  sometimes  partly  veiled,^  stands 
beside  her  ; in  one  hand  she  holds  compasses,  and  with  the 
other  she  points  to  the  sky.  She  wears  a crown  of  stars. 


n.J 


THE  MUSES 


85 


6.  Euterpe^  the  giver  of  delight,  as  goddess  of  music  plays 
the  double  flute. 

7.  Polyhymnia  is  the  muse  of  song  and  eloquence  and 
goddess  of  religious  poetry.  She  is  called  the  inventor  of 


Fig.  20.  Thalia  {^Vatican,  Ro?ne). 


Myths,  and  hence  is  represented  in  a thoughtful  attitude. 
Sometimes  she  leans  on  a pillar  and  bends  slightly  forward 
in  an  attitude  of  quiet  attention.  She  is  partly  or  com- 
pletely veiled,  representing  the  hidden  truth  which  legends 
present  in  symbolic  form. 


86 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


8.  Erato^  the  lovely  one,  sings  songs  of  love  and  marriage. 
She  is  crowned  with  myrtle  and  roses,  and  plays  the  lyre 
with  many  strings,  often  carrying  a dart,  the  weapon  of 
Eros. 

9.  Terpsichore^  the  joyful  muse  of  the  dance,  has  the  lyre, 
and  tambourine  with  little  bells.  Her  light  robe  is  girt  up, 
and  she  is  represented  in  dancing  pose. 

10.  Mnemosyne^  the  mother  of  the  Muses,  was  worshipped 
in  later  times  in  conjunction  with  her  daughters.  Her  atti- 
tude is  calm  and  thoughtful,  and  her  hands  are  folded  in 
her  raiment,  thus  representing  symbolically  the  inward  and 
abstracted  nature  of  memory.* 

(e)  Mythical  Minstrels. 

Since  Apollo  and  the  Muses  are  divinities  of  song  and  poetry 
in  general,  they  take  under  their  direct  care  those  of  the 
human  race  who  are  devoted  to  these  arts.  The  sons  and 
favourites  of  the  Muses  are  many,  and  many,  too,  are  the 
legends  grouped  about  the  beginnings  of  Greek  poetry.  Of 
these  we  may  select  a few. 

^ I.  Orpheus,  the  oldest  of  the  Greek  singers,  was  said  to 
\be  a son  of  Apollo  and  . the  Muse  Kalliope,  and  to  have  his 
home  in  Thrace.  Some  stories  say  that,  like  Herakles  and 
Thamyris,  he  was  a pupil  of  Linos ^ a famous  musician  of 
antiquity  ; others,  that  he  spent  his  youth  in  Egypt,  and 
there  received  instruction.  He  excelled  every  one  in  playing 
on  the  lyre,  and  sang  so  bewitchingly,  that  birds  of  the  air, 
fish  in  the  water,  trees,  rocks  and  wild  beasts  from  their 
dens  followed  him  to  hear  his  song. 

Orpheus  sang  of  his  wife,  the  nymph  Eurydike,  who  had 
been  stung  in  the  foot  by  a snake  as  she  fled  from  the 


* See  Slab  in  British  Museum,  Homer  and  the  Muses. 


II.] 


ORPHEUS 


87 


pursuit  of  Astraios,  and  thus  met  her  death.  Orpheus, 
beside  himself  with  grief,  uttered  a heartrending  lament, 
and  the  nymphs  of  valleys  and  mountains  joined  their 
wailing  to  his.  Moved  by  his  mourning,  the  gods  allowed 
him  to  bring  his  bride  from  the  underworld.^  Going 
down  to  Hades  he  induced  Pluto  and  Persephone  to  allow 
Eurydike  to  follow  him  to  the  upper  world,  on  condition 
that  while  he  was  still  on  his  way  out  of  the  realm  of  shades, 
he  should  not  look  back.  So  great  were  his  love  and  anxiety 
that  he  forgot  the  condition,  he  looked  round  to  Eurydike, 
and  she  was  forced  to  turn  back,  to  be  for  ever  lost  to  him. 
Orpheus  returned  sadly  to  the  upper  world,  and  wandered 
long  in  dreary  desert  places,  abandoned  to  his  grief. 

“ He  with  his  hollow  lyre  allays  the  pain 
Of  love,  and  walking  lonely  on  the  shore, 

When  morning  rises  or  when  evening  falls, 

He  mourns  in  music  sweet  Eurydice.^ 

At  length  he  joined  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  On 
the  voyage  he  did  them  good  service,  for  with  his  music  he 
drowned  the  seductive  strains  of  the  Sirens,  thus  saving  the 
mariners  from  death,  and  with  spells  learned  in  Egypt  he 
lulled  to  sleep  the  dragon  which  guarded  the  Golden  Fleece. 

Orpheus  came  to  a grievous  end,  being  slain  by  Bacchantes 
during  a wild  carousal  in  Thrace. 

And  with  his  dying  breath,  as  Hebrus  rolls 
His  mangled  body  down,  ‘ Eurydice  ’ ! 

He  calls,  and  yet  again  his  failing  voice 
* Alas,  Eurydice  ’ ! will  cry,  till  all 
The  river  banks  re-echo  with  her  name 
And  weep,  and  mourn  for  lost  Eurydice.” *  * 

The  Muses  buried  him,  and  his  lyre  was  placed  as  a 
constellation  among  the  stars. 

' Paus.  ix.  30. 

* Virg.,  “ Georg.”  iv.  453  sq. 


88 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


The  fame  of  Orpheus  spread  all  over  Greece.  He  was 
looked  on  not  only  as  a distinguished  singer,  but  as  a man 
possessing  the  gift  of  prophecy  from  the  gods.  The  doctrine 
of  the  service  and  oracles  of  the  gods,  ascribed  by  tradition 
to  Orpheus,  was  common  to  all  the  nations  of  Greece,  and 
was  connected  with  secret  rites,  for  which  a special  initiation 
was  required,  and  which  developed  into  the  Orphic  mysteries. 

2.  Another  legendary  representative  of  the  art  of  song 
was  Thamyris,  The  Greeks  thought  that  Thamyris,  like 
Homer,  was  blind,  for  it  was  a common  idea  in  antiquity 
that  those  who  ventured  to  come  into  close  relations  with 
the  gods  and  to  surprise  the  secrets  of  Nature,  lost  their  eye- 
sight. The  blindness  of  Thamyris  was  a punishment  from 
the  gods,  for  he  and  his  daughters  had  been  foolhardy  and 
arrogant  enough  to  vie  with  the  Muses  in  the  practice  of^ 
their  own  art. 

3.  Linos'^  was  a son  of  the  Muses,  in  his  life  an  inspired 
singer,  mourned  after  his  untimely  death  in  moving  dirges. 
It  was  Apollo  who  slew  Linos,  in  anger  at  his  rivalry,  as  one 
legend  says,  according  to  another  by  an  accidental  cast  of 
the  discus.  This  signifies  the  destructive  power  of  the  sun’s 
disc,  which  makes  all  nature  pine  and  wither  in  its  fierce 
summer  glow.  In  another  legend  the  youth,  like  Actaion, 
is  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  hounds  maddened  by  the  heat 
of  the  dog-days. 

4.  Miisaios  was  an  Attic  singer.  He  is  called  a son  of 
Selene,  the  moon  goddess,  and  a pupil  of  Linos  or  the 
Muses,  and  is  said  to  have  made  the  Eleusinian  worship  of 
Demeter  the  chief  theme  of  his  songs. 

5.  Anon  is  a well-known  legendary  figure.  He  was  saved 
from  the  sea  and  brought  ashore  by  a dolphin,  the  animal 
which  loves  music  and  is  sacred  to  Apollo. 


* J.  G.  Frazer,  “The  Golden  Bough 


II.] 


A/^ES 


89 


6.  Amphion^  a son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope,  was  inspired  by 
Apollo  and  received  a lyre  from  him.  When  he  and  his 
twin-brother  Zethos  together  entered  on  the  sovereignty  of 
Thebes,  they  built  mighty  walls  round  the  town.  Zethos, 
with  gigantic  force,  prepared  great  blocks  of  stone  for  the 
wall,  and  as  soon  as  Amphion  began  to  play,  the  stones 
fitted  themselves  into  their  places  of  their  own  accord,  obey- 
ing the  spell  of  his  music. 

(9)  Ares  ^ (Mars). 

According  to  the  Greeks,  Ares  w^as  a son  of  Zeus  and 
Hera.  By  some  he  has  been  thought  to  represent  the  wind, 
but  this  signification,  if  it  ever  belonged  to  him,  soon  fell 
into  the  background,  and  he  appears  as  god  of  war,  conflict 
and  rage  of  battle.  He  is  the  wildest  of  the  Olympian 
gods,  finding  his  only  pleasure  in  slaughter  and  destruction. 

In  this  aspect  he  forms  a strong  contrast  to  Pallas  Athene, 
goddess  of  the^  ordered  fray  of  knightly  warriors,  who  in 
many  legends  appears  as  his  opponent.  In  the  battle  of  the 
giants  Ares  is  said  to  have  fought  for  Zeus,  and  to  have  been 
kept  a prisoner  for  some  time  by  the  giants.  In  the  Trojan 
war  he  helped  the  Trojans,  especially  their  leader.  Hector  ; 
but  he  was  wounded  by  Diomedes,  whom  i^thene  assisted. 
Homer  says  in  the  Iliad  that  he  fell  to  the  ground  with  a 
roar  as  of  ten  thousand  warriors  in  the  fight,  and  that  in  his 
fall  he  covered  seven  roods  of  land.^ 

Later  legends  make  Aphrodite  the  wife  of  Ares,  and  in 
works  of  art  they  are  often  represented  together. 

Other  goddesses  and  mortal  women  bore  him  numerous 

A.  Voigt,  “ Beitrage  zur  Mythologie  des  Ares  und  der  Athena.” 

* - H.  D.  Muller,  “ Mythologie  der  griechischen  Stamme.” 

,L.  Preller,  “ Griechische  Mythologie  ” (Ares). 

® Iliad,  xxi.  406. 


90 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


sons.  Of  these  the  most  famous  are  : Meleagros^  prince  of 
Kalydon,  and  slayer  of  the  Kalydonian  boar,  J^hzoSy  sl^in 
by  Herakles,  whose  murder  Ares  would  have  avenged  on 
Herakles,  had  not  Zeus,  with  his  thunderbolt,  separated  his 


Fig.  21.  Ares  {Villa  Ludovisi,  Rome), 


two  strong  sons,  Parthenopaios^  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
attack  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  Oznomaos  of  Elis,  who 
is  famous  for  his  bloody  chariot-races. 

Later  heroes  are  called  sons  of  Ares,  not  in  reference  to 


II.] 


COMPANIONS  OF  APES 


91 


any  mythical  descent,  but  simply  as  an  expression  of  their 
strength  and  courage. 

Ares  had  a sister,  Brzs  (Discord),  a terrific  goddess,  who 
ran  before  his  chariot  when  he  went  to  war. 

Early  Greek  art  represents  Ares  as  a bearded  man  in  full 
panoply  of  arms,  not  specially  distinguished  from  the 
warriors  who  accompany  him.  The  later  artists  conceived 
him  as  a young  beardless  man,  with  strong,  well-knit  frame, 
not  armed,  but  wearing  the  helmet  as  a symbol  of  his  war- 
like character.  (Fig.  21.) 

The  Areopagos  in  Athens  bore  his  name.  Because 
capital  causes  were  decided  by  this  Court,  it  was  said  that 
Ares  had  himself  been  brought  before  it  in  consequence  of 
a quarrel  with  Poseidon,  and  that  the  gods  had  acquitted 
him.  Another  story  said  that  the  Amazons,  when  they 
pitched  their  camp  on  this  rock  over  against  the  citadel,  had 
sacrificed  to  Ares  and  given  his  name  to  the  place.  The 
real  origin  of  the  name  is  doubtful. 

In  the  train  of  Ares  we  find  his  legendary  son  and  servant, 
Enyalios^  his  faithful  companions,  Deimos  and  Phohos  (Fear 
and  Horror),  Ezzyo  and  Erzs  (Strife  and  Discord),  goddesses 
of  dreadful  war  that  lays  cities  waste,  and  the  Keres^  gloomy 
Fates  of  the  battle-field. 

The  Romans  gave  to  the  worship  of  Mars  a much  more 
important  place  than  the  Greeks  did  to  that  of  Ares,  for  they 
boasted  themselves  genuine  descendants  of  Marspzter^  the 
god  of  war. 

To  the  simple  shepherd  races  of  Italy  in  early  times  Mars 
was  a god  of  spring,  who  made  the  fields  fruitful,  the  flocks 
numerous,  and  the  tribes  of  man  prosperous.  The  sparrow, 
emblem  of  the  mysterious  forest,  and  the  ox  were  sacred  to 
him,  and  so  were  the  crafty  wolf  and  the  war-horse,  who 
symbolize  some  of  the  god’s  later  and  more  popular 


9^ 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


attributes.  Mars  shared  with  Jupiter  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Italian  races,  and  was  specially  honoured  by  the  war- 
like Romans  as  the  protector  of  their  mighty  empire.  The 
founders  of  Rome,  Romulus  and  Remus,  were  sons  of  Mars, 
and  being  exposed  after  their  birth  they  were  suckled  by  a 
she-wolf,  the  god^s  sacred  animal. 

There  were  many  stories  of  help  given  by  Mars  to  the 
Roman  armies.  In  292  b.c.,  when  the  Romans  had  marched 
against  the  Bruttii,  and  the  consul  was  hesitating  to  give 
the  signal  of  attack,  the  god,  in  form  of  a stately  youth, 
went  through  the  Roman  lines  and  incited  them  to  go 
forward.  He  placed  storming-ladders  against  the  wall,  and 
was  the  first  to  scale  the  fortress,  thus  leading  the  army  to 
victory.  When  the  soldiers  were  about  to  award  to  him 
the  conqueror^s  prize,  he  had  vanished,  and  then  they  knew 
that  it  was  Mars  Gradivus  (Mars  the  Leader)  himself,  who 
had  come  to  the  aid  of  his  people. 

Bellona  is  called  sometimes  the  wife,  sometimes  the  sister 
of  Mars.  She  accompanies  the  god  with  her  dreadful  atten- 
dants, Pavor  and  Pallor  (Fear  and  Pale  Horror),  the  demons 
of  battle  fright. 

Of  the  many  spots  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Mars,  the 
most  important  is  the  Roman  Campus  Martius,  a wide  open 
space,  where,  from  earliest  times,  the  Roman  youth  carried 
on  their  exercises  and  games  of  war,  and  on  which,  as  late 
as  imperial  times,  no  building  was  allowed.  In  times  of 
peace  the  soldiers  were  regularly  drilled  there,  and  once  a 
year,  in  the  month  of  March,  the  populace  in  festal  attire 
gathered  round  the  simple  altar  of  Mars  to  view  the  games, 
and  to  join  the  priest  in  his  prayer  for  the  welfare  and  con- 
tinuance of  the  state. 

After  the  races  one  horse  of  the  victorious  team  was 
sacrificed  to  the  god,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  oldest 


II.] 


MARS 


93 


Roman  townships  fought  for  the  head,  which  was  supposed 
to  bring  luck  to  the  possessor.  The  tail  of  the  animal  was 
taken  to  the  Sanctuary  of  Vesta,  and  from  the  blood  were 
prepared  cakes  to  be  used  at  the  next  festival. 

The  spoil  of  the  battle-field  was  devoted  to  Mars.  Every 
Roman  general,  before  marching  to  battle,  appeared  in  full 
armour  in  his  temple,  touched  the  sacred  shield  and  spear 
of  the  god,  and  pronounced  the  words,  “ Mars,  watch  over 
us.”  Legend  said  that  the  shield,  the  ancile^  had  fallen  from 
Heaven  before  King  Numa  Pompilius  when  he  was  praying. 
He  had  caused  eleven  others  exactly  like  it  to  be  made,  and 
had  placed  them  all  in  the  temple  of  Mars.  These  shields 
and  the  sacred  spear  were  under  the  care  of  the  Salii^  or 
priests,  who  every  year  celebrated  a feast  of  thanksgiving, 
and  worshipped  Mars  in  half-warlike,  half-priestly  garb,  with 
processions  and  ancient  hymns. 

In  primitive  times  human  beings,  especially  captive 
enemies,  were  sacrificed  to  Mars.  This  cruel  custom  was 
afterwards  abolished,  and  the  sacrifices  consisted  of  booty 
taken  in  war,  horses,  rams  and  dogs,  for  these  animals,  with 
the  wolf,  the  cock  and  the  sparrow,  were  sacred  to  Mars. 

The  numerous  Italian  bronze  figures  of  Mars,  often  of 
very  rude  and  imperfect  workmanship,  usually  represent 
him  in  his  aspect  as  Gradivus,  stepping  eagerly  forward,  in 
full  armour  and  with  lifted  spear. 

lo.  Aphrodite  ^ (Venus). 

Aphrodite  was  goddess  of  love  in  its  fullest  meaning. 
The  very  earliest  myths  of  Eastern  peoples  contain  some 
symbolic  representation  of  the  fertility  of  nature.  The 

Tiimpel,  “Ares  und  Aphrodite.’* * 

* ■ J*  1^*  Harrison,  “ Mythology  and  Monuments  ” (Aphrodite). 

M W.  Engel,  “Kypros.” 


94 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


worship  of  a Syrian  or  Phoenician  goddess  of  love,  Astarte^ 
was  brought  by  means  of  trade  communication  through 
the  Mediterranean  islands  to  Greece  and  Italy.  Legends 
about  this  goddess  present  great  variety,  but  the  root  idea 
of  a divine  productive  power  in  nature  is  common  to  all. 

The  cultus  of  Aphrodite,  in  its  passage  from  Asia  to  Greece, 
naturally  first  gamed  a foothold  in  the  islands  of  the  ^gean 
Sea.  Cyprus,  an  island  which  carried  on  a flourishing  trade 
between  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  was  very  early  the  home 
of  an  Aphrodite  cultus.  There  and  in  Kythera  she  was 
worshipped  as  Oiirama^  the  heavenly  one. 

A later  and  very  favourite  legend  tells  of  the  birth  of  the 
goddess  from  the  sea  foam  ; another,  which  never  gained  v 
such  popularity,  made  Aphrodite  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and 
Dione,  an  ancient  goddess  of  Dodona. 

As  Ourania  she  was  represented  armed,  not  only  in  the 
ancient  sanctuary  of  the  island  Kythera,  but  in  Sparta, 
Corinth  and  other  places.  In  her  temple  of  Knidos,  in 
Karia,  stood  her  most  famous  statue,  by  Praxiteles. 

The  Aphrodite  from  the  sea  naturally  soon  became  the 
goddess  who  brings  good  luck  to  sailors,  and  as  such  she  was 
worshipped  by  the  trading  inhabitants  of  coast  towns  and  har- 
bours. Gardens  and  groves  owed  their  fresh  green  to  her  tend- 
ing, and  all  flowers  their  bloom,  especially  roses  and  myrtle  ; 
the  beasts  of  the  field  under  her  care  paired  and  brought 
forth  their  young,  and  they  would  follow  her  in  troops  as 
she  walked  through  the  forests  ; the  bond  of  marriage  and 
family  affection  were  under  her  protection,  and  as  Pande- 
mos she  was  guardian  of  the  state. 

Although  in  later  times  the  graceful,  soft  and  luxurious 
aspects  of  Aphrodite  become  more  prominent,  she  was 
known  in  early  times  as  a goddess  of  war.*  The  old 


Thraemer,  ‘ ‘ Pergamos,  ’ ’ 


II.] 


APHRODITE 


95 


images  of  Aphrodite  Ourania  are  distinguished  by  armour, 
and  Homer  tells  us  how  effectually  she  protected  the  Tro- 
jans, especially  Anchises  and  her  favourite  son  Aineias. 

Innumerable  legends  group  themselves  round  the  charm- 
ing figure  of  Aphrodite,  and  tell  how  she  loved  gods 
and  mortal  men.  To  symbolize  the  inexplicable  magic  of 
her  influence,  it  was  said  that  the  goddess  possessed  a girdle 
of  spells,  which  she  would  sometimes  lend  to  mortals.  In 
Lemnos  Hephaistos  was  honoured  as  her  husband  ; in 
Thebes,  Ares.  Anchises,  the  Trojan  king^s  son,  was  be- 
loved by  her.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  stories  is  that  of 
her  favourite,  the  blooming  shepherd  boy  Adorns^  who  was 
killed  in  the  chase  by  a wild  boar.  The  goddess  was  in- 
consolable in  her  grief,  and  would  not  leave  the  dead  body 
of  the  youth.  At  last,  in  pity,  the  gods  agreed  that  her 
beloved  should  pass  the  summer  half  of  the  year  with  her 
in  the  upper  world,  the  other  half  in  the  underworld  with 
Persephone.  Thus  in  the  form  of  Adonis  is  represented 
the  growth  and  bloom  of  spring  and  summer,  and  in  his 
death  the  harvest  and  winter  sleep  of  vegetation.  Through- 
out Asia  Minor  and  in  Cyprus  this  natural  alternation  was 
celebrated  in  the  summer  feast  of  Adonis.^  A statue  of 
the  youth  was  exhibited,  all  the  ritual  of  a solemn  burial  was 
performed,  and  the  gloomy  hymns  of  lamentation  ended  in 
the  joyful  cry,  “ Adonis  lives  and  has  risen  again, thus 
representing  the  expected  return  of  spring.^  Legend  says 
that  Kinyras^  the  Cyprian,  was  the  first  priest  of  Aphro- 
dite, and  the  first  poet  who  sang  the  mournful  Adonis  songs. 

In  Asiatic  legends  we  hear  of  other  favourites  and  foster- 
children  of  Aphrodite.  There  were  some  of  these  whom  all 
her  gifts  and  favours  could  not  save  from  death.  Paris,  for 


* J.  G.  P'razer,  “The  Golden  Bough,”  vol.  i. 

* Theocritus,  Id.  xv. 


96 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


example,  was  fated  to  perish  in  Troy  with  his  father^s  race, 
although  the  goddess  had  given  him  the  fairest  wife  in 
Greece.  But  Anchises  and  ^neas  enjoyed  the  protection 
of  Aphrodite  till  they  landed  in  Italy. 

Many  legends  represent  Aphrodite  as  the  goddess  of  love. 
She  inspired  Medeia  with  such  passion  that  she  left  her 
father  and  native  land  to  follow  Jason.  She  took  unhappy 
lovers  under  her  special  protection,  but  punished  severely 
those  who  dared  to  withstand  her  will.  Hippolytos  * knew 
this  to  his  cost  when  he  was  ruined  by  the  passion  of  his 
step-mother,  Phaidra^  and  Narkissos^  when  he  spurned  the 
affection  of  the  nymph  Echo, 

By  a natural  transition  Aphrodite  becomes  goddess  of 
marriage  and  the  wedded  state.  Her  temple  and  oracle  at 
Paphos  were  well  known,  and  thousands  came  together  to 
celebrate  her  festival  there. 

Aphrodite  Anadyomene  (sea-born)  was  supposed  to  grant 
a calm  sea  and  a prosperous  voyage,  and  hence  was  worshipped 
by  fishermen  and  sailors.  On  the  island  of  Aigina  a double 
festival  was  customary  : first  a sacrifice  to  Poseidon,  then  a 
wild,  joyous  carnival  in  honour  of  Aphrodite. 

The  ram,2  the  goat  and  the  hare  were  specially  sacred  to 
Aphrodite  as  emblems  of  fertility  ; the  dolphin,  the  swan 
and  the  shell  are  her  sea  emblems  ; in  the  East  and  in 
Greece  doves  were  sacred  to  her,  and  a team  of  them 
drew  her  car  ; in  Elis  her  emblem  was  a tortoise.  The 
goddess  loved  myrtle,  roses  and  other  beautiful  flowers, 
apples  and  all  sweet  fruits. 

In  early  times  the  goddess  was  represented,  in  Paphos  and 
other  places,  by  a shapeless  stone  or  rude  sculptures.  Her 

* Euripides,  Hippolytos.  Introductory  Essay  to  the  same  by  Wilamowitz- 
Mollendorff.  1891. 

® J.  E.  II.,  “Mythology  and  Mon.,”  Div.  B,  Sect.  xi.  and  Div.C,  Sect,  xiji. 


II.] 


APHRODITE  HV  ART 


97 


type  gradually  developed  into  the  form  of  a beautiful  stately 
woman.  Sometimes  she  is  in  armour,  and  in  later  times, 
under  the  influence  of  Praxiteles  and  Apelles,  she  is  repre- 
sented nude,  in  various  attitudes.  As  the  goddess  who 


grants  victory  she  is  a majestic  and  powerful  figure,  usually 
with  one  foot  supported.  As  goddess  of  beauty  she  is 
young  and  graceful.  (Fig.  22.) 

In  Italy  the  month  of  April,  when  flowers  and  plants 
spring  afresh,  or  as  the  myth  would  say,  when  Adonis 

a 


98 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMFOS 


[chap. 


returns  to  the  upper  world,  was  dedicated  to  Venus j the 
old  goddess  of  spring,  under  whose  protection  stood  the 
prosperity  of  citizen  and  state.  In  later  times  the  Aphrodite 
of  the  East  and  of  Greece  usurped  the  worship  of  the  original 
Italian  Ve7ius,  whose  statue  was  said  to  have  been  brought 
to  Rome  by  her  son  ^neas.  Venus  was  worshipped  on 
the  Aventine  hill  as  Murcia^  goddess  of  vegetable  fer- 
tility, peacemaker  between  the  Romans  and  Sabines,  and 
founder  of  civic  concord.  She  was  called  Cloacina,  and 
as  death-goddess  she  was  named  Libitina.  As  Venus 
Victrix  she  resembled  Victoria^  was  worshipped  by  war- 
riors and  had  a sanctuary  on  the  Capitol.  As  Vemts 
Genetrix  she  was,  first,  mother  of  ^neas  and  founder  of 
the  Julian  Imperial  race,  and  in  a larger  sense  ancestress 
and  protectress  of  the  Roman  people.  In  later  times 
Venus,  like  Aphrodite,  became  the  goddess  of  love  and 
reckless  enjoyment,  and  as  such  was  very  widely  wor- 
shipped. 

II.  Attendants  of  Aphrodite. 

[a)  Eros^  (Amor)  and  the  Erotes. 

Eros  appears  among  the  Greeks  in  two  very  different 
forms.  He  is  in  some  Theogonies,  that  cosmic  force  who 
brought  harmony  and  order  into  the  confused  mass  of  an- 
tagonistic elements  which  existed  in  the  beginning  and 
formed  Chaos.  He  united  kindred  substances,  and  separated 
those  which  were  of  different  kinds.  In  the  age  of  the 
famous  philosophers,  when  men  were  trying  to  penetrate 
deeper  into  the  origin  of  the  universe,  there  was  much  talk 
of  this  Eros. 

The  Eros  who  was  the  object  of  popular  belief  as  a real  god 


Furtwaengler,  “ Eros  in  der  Vasenmalerei.' 


r 


II.]  ATTENDANTS  OF  APHRODITE  99 

was  a son  of  Ares  and  Aphrodite,  or,  according  to  a different 
version,  the  divinity  who,  with  Peitho  and  the  other  gods, 
received  the  goddess  of  love  as  she  rose  from  the  sea.  This 
scene  was  represented  by  Pheidias  on  the  base  of  the  throne 
of  the  Olympian  Zeus. 

The  Eros  of  still  later  times  was  the  youngest  and  fairest 
of  the  gods,  whose  omnipotence  could  subdue  both  gods  and 
men. 

Although  the  human  aspect  of  Eros  was  the  more  pro- 
minent in  popular  belief  and  in  art,  his  worship  as  the 
creative  force  of  Nature  continued  to  flourish,  as  in  Thespiai, 
for  instance,  where  his  most  ancient  emblem  was  a rough 
stone.^  Eros  was  worshipped  as  Victor  at  Sparta,  Thebes, 
Athens  and  on  several  islands,  and  as  personification  of  the 
love  of  fatherland  by  Spartans  and  Cretans,  who  sacrificed 
to  him  before  joining  battle.  In  Athens  there  was  an  altar 
to  him,  and  also  to  Anteros  (love  in  return).  The  festival 
of  the  Erotidia,  held  at  Thespiai,  in  Boetia,  was  a favourite 
one,  and  survived  into  later  times.  The  gymnasia,  where 
the  Hellenic  youth  practised  knightly  and  soldierly  exercises, 
were  specially  sacred  to  Eros  as  the  protector  of  good  fellow- 
ship and  friendship  among  youths  and  men. 

The  famous  sculptor,  Praxiteles,  represented  Eros  as  a 
graceful  youth  verging  on  manhood.  Later  than  this  Eros 
is  a roguish  mischievous  boy,  sparing  neither  gods  nor  men 
with  his  unerring  darts.  His  power  over  the  Immortals  is 
shown  by  their  attributes  which  he  holdj>  in  his  hands. 
He  may  be  seen,  for  instance,  with  the  gigantic  club  of 
Herakles.  Although  Eros  was  not  one  of  the  high  Olym- 
pian gods,  he  was  a pleasing  figure  to  the  Greeks  in  art 
and  poetry  as  a personification  of  the  omnipotence  and 
eternal  youth  of  Love.  Philosophers  and  tragedians  had 


^ Pans.  ix.  27. 


lOO 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[CHAP. 


much  to  say  of  Eros.  Poets  who  sang  of  love  and  pleasure, 
and  the  blessed  Golden  Age,  were  called  Erotic. 

Eros,  as  a boy,  is  winged.  (Fig.  23.)  Sometimes  he  holds 


Fig.  23.  Eros  [Capitol^  Rome). 


the  bow  and  quiver,  or  has  a burning  torch  in  his  hand,  to 
show  the  fiery  power  of  his  inspiration.  In  this  aspect  he 
inspires  youths  who  march  to  battle.  Sometimes  he  plays 
the  lyre,  riding  on  an  eagle,  a lion  or  a dolphin,  or  driving 


II.] 


EROS  AND  PSYCHE 


loi 


stags  or  boars,  for  love  can  tame  the  wildest  beasts.  One  of 
the  loveliest  stories  of  later  antiquity  is  the  myth  of  the 
union  of  Eros  and  Psyche.  Psyche  is  the  soul,  and  was 
thought  of  as  a delicate  butterfly  or  a slender  girl  with  but- 
terfly wings.  Hence  in  representations  of  the  creation  of 
man,  Athene  places  a butterfly  on  the  head  of  the  inanimate 
body  formed  by  Prometheus  ; or  Hermes,  as  leader  of  souls, 
brings  to  Prometheus  a Psyche  with  butterfly  wings.* * 

Psyche  was  the  daughter  of  a prince  on  the  island  of 
Crete,  or,  in  another  version,  of  the  Sun-god,  and  was 
dowered  by  the  gods  with  such  exquisite  beauty  that  she 
was  admired  above  Aphrodite,  and  thus  aroused  the  jealousy 
of  the  goddess,  and  of  her  own  sisters,  who  were  less  beau- 
tiful than  herself.  Aphrodite  commanded  Eros  to  punish 
Psyche  by  inspiring  her  with  an  infatuation  for  some  despic- 
able creature,  and  Eros — 

“ Had  still  no  thought  but  to  do  all  her  will, 

Nor  cared  to  think  if  it  were  good  or  ill : 

So,  beautiful  and  pitiless,  he  went, 

And  toward  him  still  the  blossomed  fruit  trees  leant, 

And  after  him  the  wind  crept  murmuring, 

And  on  the  boughs  the  birds  forgot  to  sing.”* 

But  when  he  saw  Psyche  he  fell  in  love  with  her  on  the 
spot.  In  the  meantime  her  father  had  consulted  the  oracle 
of  Apollo,  and  had  been  directed  to  clothe  his  daughter  in 
mourning  garments,  and  lead  her  to  a rock,  where  she 
should  become  the  bride  of  a winged  dragon.  With  grief 
and  lamentation  he  obeyed  this  cruel  command.  As  soon 

Maxime  Collignon,  “ Essai  sur  les  Monuments  Grecs  et  Romains 
relatifs  au  Mythe  de  Psyche.” 

, Andrew  Lang,  “ Custom  and  Myth.”  (Chapter  on  Cupid,  Psyche, 

I and  the  Sun-frog). 

“ The  Marriage  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,”  done  into  English  by  W. 
k Adlington,  edited  by  Andrew  Lang. 

* W.  Morris,  “ Earthly  Paradise.” 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[CHAI>. 


iO^ 


as  Psyche  was  alone  upon  the  rock  she  was  hidden  by  a 
cloud,  lifted  by  gentle  breezes,  and  wafted  to  a beautiful 
castle.  Here  every  night,  as  soon  as  it  was  dark,  she  was 
visited  by  Eros,  but  she  could  not  see  him,  nor  did  she  know 


Fig.  24.  Eros  and  Ps>che  (Capitol,  Rome). 

his  name,  and  she  was  strictly  warned  not  to  attempt  to  find 
out  who  her  lover  was.  But  when  Psyche^s  sisters  came  to 
her  to  see  her  wonderful  castle,  they  persuaded  her  to  take 
the  first  opportunity  of  satisfying  her  curiosity.  So  Psyche 


II.] 


TYCHE  AND  ATE 


39 


Tyche  received  much  honour  in  Greece,  especially  in 
Athens,  whose  inhabitants  considered  their  civic  and  private 
life  to  be  under  her  special  protection. 

3.  The  gifts  of  Tyche  ought  to  be  enjoyed  soberly, 
humbly  and  prudently.  When  men  are  so  uplifted  by  good 
fortune  that  they  forget  their  weakness,  and  in  their  arrogance 
become  worshippers  of  Hybrts^  goddess  of  insolent  pride,  Zeus 
sends  a terrible  punishment  in  the  form  of  Ate^  goddess  of 
blind  heedlessness,  and  under  her  influence  they  commit  deeds 
which  lead  to  their  own  destruction.  Ate  formerly  lived 
with  Zeus,  her  father,  on  Olympos,  but  having  once  de- 
ceived him,  she  was  hurled  down  to  the  earth,  and  ever  since 
she  has  been  wandering  about,  neither  seen  nor  heard  of 
men,  tempting  them  to  act  in  wanton  disregard  of  their  real 
prosperity  and  advantage.  Close  on  the  heels  of  Ate,  as  she 
strides  mightily  along,  follow  the  Litai^  (prayers  of  penitence), 
doing  their  best  to  make  good  the  wrong.  They  take  the 
form  of  ancient  women,  ugly,  but  kindly  disposed.  The  man 
who  has  committed  a wrong  must  beg  their  good  offices  as 
intercessors,  for  only  thus  can  he  hope  to  atone  for  the  injury 
done.  If  he  obstinately  refuse  to  leave  his  evil  courses  he 
must  experience  the  full  terror  of  Ate’s  revenge. 

4.  Nemesis'^  was  the  inevitable  avenger  of  wrong,  the 
preserver  of  right  balance  in  all  things,  the  meter  out  of  just 
punishment.  She  laid  down  laws  for  men’s  conduct  in  pros- 
perity, imposed  a check  on  arrogance,  stopped  the  career  of 
base  men,  and  avenged  all  injuries  on  their  authors.  She 


^ Iliad,  ix.  502.  Litai  are  the  prayers  of  penitence  offered  to  the 
injured  person  by  the  one  who  had  done  him  wrong.  (See  the  Iliad,  ed. 
by  Walter  Leaf.) 

/'“American  Journal  of  Archaeology,”  1890,  p.  565  (for  Rhamnus)  ; 
* j “ Ephemeris  Archaiologike,”  1891  (for  Nemesis  and  Adrasteia). 
(Hermann  Posnansky,  “ Nemesis  and  Adrasteia,”  Breslau,  1890. 


40 


THE  GODS  OF  OL  YMPOS 


[chap. 


was  represented  as  a beautiful  royal  lady,  with  a thoughtful 
countenance,  wearing  a fillet  or  a crown.  Her  worshippers 
were  found  in  many  places.  The  Nemesia  were  celebrated 
in  her  honour  at  Athens,  accompanied  by  public  expiatory 
sacrifices.  At  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor  there  were  several 
goddesses  who  bore  her  name  and  were  worshipped  as 
winged  divinities,  but  her  principal  sanctuary  was  at 
Rhammis.  In  later  times  Adrasteia^  an  Asiatic  avenging 
goddess,  whose  worship  had  been  imported  into  Greece,  was 
identified  with  Nemesis  and  was  represented  as  pursuing 
evil-doers  on  a chariot  drawn  by  griffins. 

The  following  are  guardian  spirits,  sent  by  the  supreme 
gods  to  watch  over  men. 

5.  The  Daimones.  At  a time  when  every  tree,  bush,  and 
spring  Avas  believed  to  be  the  home  of  some  divinity,  and 
when  all  natural  phenomena  were  ascribed  to  the  direct 
interference  of  the  gods,  we  shall  be  prepared  to  find  that 
every  human  being  had  a special  divinity  as  his  guide  and 
protector.  This  belief  in  guardian  spirits  is  to  be  found 
among  the  oldest  peoples  of  the  East,  and  reappears,  with 
differences  in  detail,  answering  to  changed  times  and 
surroundings,  in  Greece  and  Rome.  The  daimones  of  the 
Greeks  Avere  loAA^er  divinities,  the  special  servants  of  Zeus, 
and  seem  to  have  been  thought  of  as  souls  of  men  of  the 
golden  age,  appointed  to  sustain  those  Avho  toiled  and  groaned 
under  the  bondage  of  the  iron  age.  The  Romans  believed 
that  every  man  had  a genius,  born  with  him  and  to  die  Avith 
him.  It  was  the  task  of  the  genius  to  inculcate  a Avise  and 
moderate  (“  genial  ”)  enjoyment  of  life.  Melancholy  on  the 
one  hand,  and  licentious  excess  on  the  other,  Avere  displeasing 
to  the  guardian  spirit.  The  Greeks  Avere  accustomed 
specially  to  invoke  the  Agathodaimon^  good  demon, Avho 
protected  individual  men  and  gave  prosperity  to  states  and 


II.] 


HERMES 


41 


nations.  He  is  represented  as  a youth,  holding  in  the  one 
hand  a horn  of  plenty,  and  in  the  other  poppies  and  ears  of 
corn. 

4.  Hermes  (Mercurius).  * 

Hermes  was  a son  of  Zeus  and  Maia^  “ the  nursing 
mother,”  a daughter  of  Atlas,  and  was  born  at  night  in 
a secret  cave  of  Mount  Kyllene, 

From  the  very  earliest  times  Hermes  was  worshipped 
among  the  Greeks  as  the  god  who  makes  flocks  and  herds 
thrive  and  multiply.  Since  flocks  and  herds  form  the  chief 
wealth  of  primitive  man,  it  was  natural  that  Hermes  should 
come  to  be  regarded  as  the  giver  of  all  kinds  of  wealth, 
no  matter  whence  it  was  derived.  Now,  as  commerce  is 
one  of  the  quickest  and  easiest  ways  of  amassing  wealth, 
Hermes  became  god  of  trade  and  protector  of  merchants. 
Again,  if  trade  is  to  be  carried  on  safely  the  highways  must 
be  free  and  unmolested— -hence  Hermes  is  the  special  protector 
of  roads.  As  a trader  who  wishes  to  succeed  must  keep  a 
wary  eye  on  his  own  interests,  Hermes  is  made  the  patron  of 
foresight  and  prudence.  It  sometimes  happens  that  trans- 
actions, not  perhaps  of  the  most  upright  nature,  are  carried 
through  by  talking  the  purchaser  over,  therefore  Hermes 
was  called  the  god  of  persuasive  eloquence.  Such  persuasive 
talk  may  often  border  on  deceptive  cunning,  therefore  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  that  Hermes  is  also  the  god  of  rogues 
and  thieves. 

In  early  times  people  used  to  pick  up  the  stones  which  lay 
on  the  ground,  and  pile  them  up  in  great  heaps  in  public 
places  and  at  cross-roads.  Any  one  who  passed  a heap  would 
put  on  another  stone  in  honour  of  the  god,  and  this  custom 


* II.  D.  Muller,  “ Mythologie  der  griechischen  Stamme,”  vol.  ii. 


42 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


not  only  kept  the  fields  clear,  but  by  improving  the  roadway 
made  communication  easier.  Wooden  or  stone  pillars  were 
placed  to  serve  as  centres  to  these  heaps  ; they  were  emblems 
of  the  god,  and  were  afterwards  carved  into  the  likeness  ot 
his  face.  The  well-known  art-type  of  the  Herm  arose  out 
of  this  custom,  and  was  afterwards  applied  to  representations 
of  other  divinities  and  to  human  portraits. 

Hermes,  as  messenger  and  herald  of  the  gods,  especially 
of  Zeus,  is  the  link  of  connection  between  heaven  and  earth, 
and  reveals  the  gods’  will  to  men — hence  he  presides  over 
oracles,  and  in  the  underworld  he  leads  the  souls  of  the 
dead  to  Charon’s  bark,  and  thence  to  the  throne  of  Aides. 
Hermes  helped  brave  heroes  who  ventured  into  the  under- 
world— Herakles,  when  he  fetched  Kerberos,  and  Orpheus, 
when  he  went  to  beg  his  wife  back  from  Plouton. 

Hermes  being  thus  the  mysterious  link  between  the  shadow- 
realm  of  Plouton  and  life  on  earth,  is  god  of  dreams,  to  the 
ancients  dim  pictures  of  the  realm  below,  therefore  the  last 
libation  in  the  evening  was  dedicated  to  him.  As  an  under- 
world divinity  he  was  also  the  protector  of  mines. 

As  the  god  of  youth  Hermes  was  specially  honoured. 
The  Gymnasium  and  the  Palaestra  were  supposed  to  be  of 
his  institution,  and  his  statues  were  constantly  placed  in  these 
centres  of  physical  training,  in  order  to  recall  his  excellence 
in  boxing,  wrestling  and  quoit-throwing.  In  certain  towns 
contests  of  boys,  called  Hermaia,  took  place  in  his  honour. 
Children  of  tender  age  were  supposed  to  be  under  his  special 
care  ; he  is  said  to  have  taken  charge  of  Herakles  as  a boy, 
and  the  famous  statue  of  Praxiteles,  found  in  Olympia,  repre- 
sents him  as  nurse  of  the  little  Dionysos. 

On  the  very  day  of  his  birth  Hermes  * gave  evidence  of 


* Homeric  Hymn  to  Hermes. 


HERMES  OF  PRAXITELES. 

(found  at  OLYMPIA.  1877.  RESTORED  BY  SCHAPER.) 


APOLLO  BELVEDERE. 

(ROME.) 


II.] 


HIM  EROS  AND  POTHOS  103 

took  a lamp,  stole  softly  to  the  side  of  Eros,  and  bent  over 
him.  When  she  saw  that  the  sleeping  youth  was  Aphro- 
dite^s  son  she  was  so  startled  that  she  let  a drop  of  hot  oil 
fall  on  his  naked  shoulder.  The  god  awoke,  bitterly  rebuked 
her  curiosity,  and  left  the  castle.  Psyche  was  inconsolable, 
and  wandered  over  the  whole  world  to  find  her  lover.  On 
her  way  she  came  to  the  palace  of  Aphrodite,  who  detained 
her,  imposed  slaveys  labour  on  her,  and  at  last  put  her 
courage  to  the  severest  test  by  commanding  her  to  go  to  the 
realm  of  Shades  and  fetch  a casket  of  ointment  from  Perse- 
phone. All  this  time  Psyche  was  supported  by  the  secret 
presence  of  Eros,  else  she  must  have  succumbed  to  her  hard 
trials.  When  she  had  fetched  the  casket  and  opened  it, 
stupefying  fumes  arose  from  it,  and  she  sank  fainting  on  the 
ground.  Now  Eros  could  contain  himself  no  longer,  he 
hastened  to  her,  took  her  in  his  arms,  and  lovingly  called 
her  back  to  life.  The  anger  of  Aphrodite  was  appeased, 
and  the  lovers  were  wedded,  with  great  rejoicings,  in  pre- 
sence of  all  the  Olympian  gods.  (Fig.  24.) 

It  is  not  difficult  to  attach  an  allegorical  meaning  to  this 
beautiful  tale.  It  is  the  story  of  human  life.  The  soul  who 
has  once  transgressed  the  divine  command  must  suffer 
sorrow  and  misfortune,  until,  chastened  and  purified,  she  is 
ready  to  enter  on  the  enjoyment  of  pure  and  real  happiness. 

Poets  and  artists  multiplied  the  figure  of  Eros,  and  con- 
ceived of  a number  of  little  Love-gods,  or  Genii,  in  the  form 
of  pretty  children.  They  are  found  in  the  train  of  Aphro- 
dite or  of  Dionysos,  are  called  Erotes  and  may  constantly 
be  seen  in  ancient  pictures  and  sculptures.  They  have  been 
a favourite  subject,  too,  with  later  artists,  even  down  to 
modern  times. 

(3)  AnferoSy  HzmeroSj  and  Pathos. 

Anteros  means  love  in  return.  Himeros  and  Pathos  ex- 


104 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


press  longing  and  desire.  At  first  they  are  only  qualities  of 
Eros,  afterwards  they  are  separate  persons,  and  accompany 
him. 

(d:)  Peitho  [Suadd). 

Peitho  is  one  of  the  female  attendants  of  Aphrodite  and 
personifies  the  power  of  persuasion.  The  Greeks  call  her  a 
daughter  of  Aphrodite,  and  at  Athens  and  Sikyon  the 
two  goddesses  were  worshipped  together.  It  is  said  that 
Theseus  introduced  her  worship  into  Athens  after  he  had 
persuaded  the  different  tribes  of  Attica  to  found  a common 
city. 

(d')  Hymen^  or  Hymenaios  (Hymenaeus), 

Hymen  was  the  god  of  marriage,  joyous  wedding  feasts 
and  mournful  songs.  The  accounts  of  his  origin  differ  ; he 
is  called  the  son  of  Apollo  or  of  Kalliope,  of  Dionysos  or  of 
Aphrodite.  He  is  really  a personification  of  the  bridal  song, 
at  first  honoured  as  a mortal,  then  raised  to  divine  honours. 
The  fable  says  that  Hymen  was  a poor  boy  of  such  delicate 
beauty  that  he  looked  like  a girl.  He  loved  a charming 
Athenian  maiden,  but  had  no  hope  of  being  allowed  to  wed 
her,  so  in  order  to  be  near  her  he  disguised  himself  as  a girl, 
and  took  part  in  the  feast  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis.  In  the 
midst  of  the  festival  a gang  of  pirates  suddenly  rushed  out  of 
an  ambush  and  carried  off  Hymen  and  the  maidens  to  their 
ship.  They  landed  with  their  prey  on  a desert  island,  and 
there  they  became  drunk  and  sank  into  a deep  sleep. 
Hymen  seized  the  opportunity,  and  with  the  help  of  the 
maidens  took  away  the  robbers’  weapons  and  slew  them. 
He  then  sailed  back  to  Athens  alone,  and  promised  to  the 
Athenian  parents,  who  were  in  deep  grief  for  their  loss, 
to  bring  back  their  daughters  safe  and  sound  if  they  would 
give  him  to  wife  the  maiden  he  loved.  This  they  solemnly 


II.] 


HYMEN  AND  THE  CH A RITES 


105 


promised.  Hymen  took  with  him  a small  force  of  men, 
returned  to  the  desert  island,  brought  the  maidens  safely 
back  to  Athens,  and  was  married  to  the  maid  he  loved.  As 
fortunate  hero  of  the  sea  he  was  called  Thalassios,  and  he 
was  so  happy  in  his  marriage  that  his  name  was  invoked  at 
weddings,  and  that  he  himself  finally  became  a god  as 
founder  and  protector  of  wedlock.  At  wedding  feasts 
flowers  and  wreaths  were  offered  to  him,  while  the  solemn 
hymeneal  chant  was  sung. 

Hymen  was  a playmate  of  Eros  in  the  train  of  Aphrodite. 
His  seat  was  with  the  Muses  on  Mount  Helikon,  in  Boeotia. 
One  legend  says  that  after  singing  the  wedding  hymn  for 
Dionysos  and  Ariadne,  or  Althaia,  he  lost  his  voice  and 
expired.  He  is  always  the  emblem  of  youthful  charm,  of 
pleasure  and  song. 

{e)  Charites  [Grati'ae)^  crTiA 

The  Charites  were  worshipped  all  over  Hellas  from  very 
early  times  as  goddesses  of  grace,  charm,  beauty  and  merri- 
ment, and  as  givers  of  prosperity.  Their  cultus  was  localized 
at  Sparta,  Athens,  Crete  and  Orchomenos.  Games  had 
been  held  in  their  honour  in  Crete  ever  since  the  reign  of 
the  legendary  King  Minos.  At  Orchomenos  was  their 
oldest  sanctuary,  and  there  they  were  represented  by  three 
rough  stones,  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The  myth 
of  the  Charites  probably  arose  from  the  natural  freshness  and 
beauty  of  the  world  in  spring,  and  their  function,  as  tenders 
and  fosterers  of  this  early  growth,  was  gradually  extended 
till  it  included  everything  graceful  and  beautiful.  The  poets, 
especially  Pindar,  developed  this  idea  further,  and  it  is  to 
them  we  owe  the  notions  of  moral  fitness  and  beauty,  mirth. 


* “ Mythology  and  Monuments,  Athens,”  J.  E.  H.,  Div.  D,  Sect.  xv. 


io6  The  gods  of  olympos  [chap. 

prosperity  and  happiness,  which  we  associate  with  the  name 
of  the  Graces. 

These  divinities  were  represented  as  maidens,  pure,  young 
and  charming,  dancing  and  playing,  crowned  with  roses,  the 
flower  of  Aphrodite,  and  other  blossoms  of  spring.  They 
were  the  constant  attendants  of  Aphrodite,  always  ready  to 
do  her  service  ; they  lived  with  the  Muses  near  Mount 
Otympos,  and  would  often  appear  before  the  gods  at  their 
feasts  to  charm  them  by  their  graceful  dancing  or  sweet 
singing. 

The  Charites  are  sometimes  called  daughters  of  Zeus  and 
the  Okeanid  Euryftome^  sometimes  of  Dionysos  and  Aphro- 
dite. Their  number  is  variously  given.  The  names  of 
Aglaza^  Euphrosyne  and  Thalia  probably  come  from  Orcho- 
menos  ; in  Sparta  there  were  only  two,  Kleta  (Shining 
one,)  and  Phaenna  (Light)  ; in  Athens  also  there  were  two, 
Auxo  and  Hegemone.  In  the  Iliad,  however,  a whole  bevy 
of  Charites,  older  and  younger,  is  honoured,  and  of  these 
Pasithea  was  the  youngest  and  most  beautiful.  Another 
story  made  Aglaia^  the  youngest,  the  bride  of  Hephaistos, 
probably  meaning  thereby  that  the  works  of  art  of  this  god 
were  perfect  in  beauty.  Poetry  owes  its  adornment  to  the 
Charites,  Athene  cannot  dispense  with  their  aid  in  her 
serious  studies,  nor  Hermes  in  his  eloquence.  All  this  shows 
how  highly  the  Greeks  valued  grace  and  charm,  and  how 
they  made  its  attainment  one  of  the  aims  of  life. 

The  Charites  were  worshipped  in  their  sanctuaries  some- 
times alone,  sometimes  with  other  divinities,  as  Aphrodite, 
Apollo  and  the  Muses.  The  Charitesia  were  celebrated 
every  year  in  their  honour,  with  competitions  in  music  and 
dancing.  At  banquets  the  first  cup  of  wine  was  dedicated 
to  them. 

In  early  art  the  Charites  are  completely  draped,  later 


II.] 


107 


HEPHAISTOS 


they  are  slightly  draped  or  nude,  usually  linked  as  for  the 
dance.  Roses,  myrtle,  ears  of  corn  and  fruit  show  their 
function  as  givers  of  increase.  A lyre  or  other  musical 
instrument  marks  their  connection  with  festal  enjoyments. 

12.  Hephaistos  (Vulcanus). 

Hephaistos^  according  to  the  Greeks,  was  a son  of  Zeus 
and  Hera.  He  is  a personification  of  the  inner  volcanic  fire 
of  the  earth. 

Although  the  poets  speak  of  quarrels  between  mother 
and  son,  yet  on  the  whole  Hephaistos  is  on  good  terms  with 
Hera.  Zeus,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a grudge  against  Hepha- 
istos because  of  his  frequent  opposition  in  his  mother’s 
behalf,  and  is  said  once  to  have  taken  him  by  the  foot  and 
thrown  him  out  of  Olympos.  Hephaistos  fell  a whole  day 
long,  as  the  thunderbolt  falls  from  the  sky,  and  at  sunset 
found  himself,  with  scarcely  any  breath  left  in  his  body,  on 
the  island  of  Lemnos.  The  barbarous  folk  called  Sintians 
received  him  and  tended  him  kindly.* 

There  is  another  legend  to  account  for  his  lameness,  which 
says  that  Hera  was  ashamed  of  Hephaistos  when  he  came 
into  the  world  because  he  was  so  small  and  feeble,  like  the 
spark  from  which  the  fire  begins,  and  that  she  cast  him  out 
of  Olympos.  He  fell  into  the  sea,  where  Thetis  and 
Eurynome  received  him  ; he  passed  a long  time  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  sea-gods,  and  made  many  works  of  art. 

With  all  his  strong  arms  and  powerful  frame  Hephaistos 
was  lame.  For  this  physical  failing  he  was  often  made  the 
butt  of  Olympian  jests,  but  his  skill  in  forging  and  fashion- 
ing metal  brought  him  high  honour,  for  the  lordly  houses  of 
Olympos  owed  their  adornments  to  his  craft.  One  of  the 


* Homer,  Iliad,  i.  590. 


io8 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


things  which  he  made  while  he  abode  with  Thetis  was  an 
ingenious  golden  throne  with  invisible  bonds.  This  he  sent 
to  Hera,  in  order  to  take  revenge  for  his  expulsion,  and 
when  the  goddess  sat  on  the  throne  the  bonds  fastened  her 
down,  so  that  not  even  the  power  of  Zeus  could  loose  her. 

Dionysos  alone  was  able  to  appease  the  wrath  of 
Hephaistos  against  his  mother  and  to  lead  him  back  to 
Olympos,  and  through  his  intercession  Hera  was  freed  from 
her  chair.* * 

The  Greek  conception  of  Hephaistos  as  the  god  of  the 
forge-fire,  which  melts  metals  and  prepares  them  for  use, 
naturally  became  associated  with  volcanic  districts.  Hence 
Lemnos,  with  its  volcano  Mosychlos,  active  till  later  times, 
was  the  place  where  he  fell,  and  Lower  Italy  was  the  district 
where  he  and  his  journeyman  smiths,  the  gigantic  Kyklopes,® 
produced  their  great  works  in  metal.  In  later  times 
Hephaistos  became  the  protecting  divinity  of  all  metal- 
workers in  Athens,  who  celebrated  a great  yearly  festival, 
the  Chalkeia,  in  his  honour.  The  chief  feature  of  this 
festival  was  a torch  race  of  youths.  Whoever  first  reached 
the  goal  with  his  torch  alight  received  the  prize. 

The  ancients  usually  ascribed  all  good  metal-work  to 
Hephaistos,  the  weapons  of  Achilles,  for  instance.  Almost 
every  god  had  reQeived  presents  from  him,  and  specially 
famous  was  his  brazen  house  on  Olympos,  where  the  mighty 
artificer  had  built  himself  a smithy.  He  had  fashioned  two 
maidens  of  gold  to  wait  on  him,  and  had  given  them  speech 
and  motion  ; for  the  hall  of  the  Olympian  gods  he  had 
contrived  ingenious  tripods,  which  moved  of  themselves  ; 
the  thunderbolts  of  Zeus,  the  trident  of  Poseidon  and  the 
invisible  cloud-cap  of  Pluton,  were  all  works  of  Hephaistos. 

* Mythology  and  Monuments,  Athens,’’  J.  E.  H.,  Div.  C,  Sect.  xii. 

* Theokritos,  Idyll  xi. 


II.] 


WORSHIP  OF  HEPHAISTOS 


109 


Other  contrivances  of  the  god,  besides  the  throne  of  Hera, 
show  his  mischief  and  cunning — ^for  example,  the  invisible 
net  which  caught  Ares  and  Aphrodite,  and  which  only  he 
himself  could  loose.  His  workmen  and  companions,  the 
Kyklopes^^  the  Daktyls^  and  the  Telchines  in  Lemnos,  were 
at  once  famous  artists  and  mischievous  Kobolds,  thus  corres- 
ponding to  the  strange  contradictory  nature  of  subterranean 
fire,  which  fosters  vegetation  and  destroys  it. 

As  the  Graces  must  have  something  to  do  with  all  works 
of  art,  the  Greeks  gave  Aglaia,  one  of  the  Charites,  to 
Hephaistos  to  wife.  The  later  legend  of  the  marriage  of 
Hephaistos  with  Aphrodite,  goddess  of  beauty,  may  perhaps 
be  referred  to  the  same  idea. 

The  worship  of  Hephaistos  was  carried  on  in  South 
Campania,  Sicily,  near  yEtna  and  in  Attika,  but  most  of  all  in 
Lemnos.  Here  he  was  honoured  every  year  with  strange 
rites.  For  nine  days  there  was  no  fire  on  the  island,  and  it 
was  only  after  a sacred  trireme  had  brought  the  consecrated 
flame  from  Delos  that  fires  could  again  be  lighted  in  houses 
and  workshops.  At  the  foot  of  Moschylos  stood  the  ancient 
temple  of  the  god,  on  the  legendary  spot  where  Prometheus 
had  stolen  the  heavenly  fire.  On  Mount  ^tna  Hephaistos 
had  a temple  guarded  by  dogs,  who  had  the  gift  of  knowing 
the  pious  from  the  profane. 

The  Apaturia  was  an  Athenian  festival  celebrated  to 
Hephaistos  and  Athene  in  conjunction.  It  consisted  of  sacri- 
fices on  the  hearth,  with  blazing  torches,  festal  garments 
and  hymns  in  praise  of  the  giver  of  fire.  This  was  the  feast 
chiefly  of  smiths,  potters  and  workers  in  brass.  Attic  legend 
said  that  Athene  was  beloved  by  Hephaistos,  that  she  rejected 
his  offers,  but  took  Erichthonios,  his  son,  born  of  Ge,  under 
her  special  protection.  (Fig.  25.) 


* “ Myths  of  the  Odyssey”  (Cyclops),  J.  E.  H. 


I TO 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


Hephaistos  appears  in  art  as  a bearded  man  of  ripe  age, 
with  a grave  furrowed  countenance,  scantily  clothed,  work- 
ing the  forge  in  company  with  his  comrades.  He  is  often 
distinguished  by  a Greek  workman’s  cap,  but  his  lameness 
is  not  usually  indicated.  On  vase  paintings  the  scene  of  the 
return  of  Hephaistos  to  Olympos  is  often  depicted.  He  rides 
upon  a mule,  draped,  wearing  a wreath  and  holding  hammer 
and  tongs  in  his  hand,  and  is  led  by  Dionysos. 

The  Roman  legend  said  that  Romulus  was  the  first  to 


Fig.  25.  Cylix  : Birth  of  Erichthonios  {Berlin  A/useuin). 


build  a temple  to  Vulcan^  and  to  institute  the  Vulcanalia. 
On  the  23rd  of  August,  in  the  sanctuary  on  the  Campus 
Martius,  a sacrifice  of  fish  was  offered,  to  ward  off  ill-luck 
from  the  use  of  fire  and  light  during  the  darker  half  of  the 
year.  The  evening  lamp  was  on  this  day  lighted  for  the 
first  time,  and  announced  the  beginning  of  winter’s  work. 
As  god  of  smiths  and  artificers,  Vulcan  was  also  called 
Mulciher^  softener  of  metals,  and  like  Hephaistos,  he  was 
supposed  to  have  a workshop  in  the  volcanic  region. 


n.l 


HE ST  I A 


III 


13.  Hestia*  (Vesta). 

Hestia^  sister  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  and  daughter  of  Kronos 
and  Rhea,  was  honoured  by  Greeks  and  Romans  as  goddess 
of  the  domestic  hearth-fire.  She  was  the  real  protectress  of 
the  family ; in  each  house  the  hearth  was  her  sanctuary  and 
the  whole  household  assembled  every  day  round  it  for  worship. 
(Fig.  26.)  A sanctuary  of  Hestia,  with  sacred  fire  burning 
on  it,  was  found  in  every  council  house,  and  when  colonists 
started  for  a distant  settlement  they  always  took  with  them 
some  of  this  sacred  fire,  that  they  might  secure  the  favour 
of  the  goddess  in  their  rew  home,  and  still  remain  mem- 
bers of  their  mother  state.  Every  undertaking  was  begun 
by  a libation  to  Hestia  on  her  altar.  If  the  fire  went  out 
it  must  not  be  rekindled  from  any  common  source,  but 
only  from  the  fire  of  another  sanctuary. 

Hestia  was  not  only  the  centre  of  the  individual  city,  but 
the  protecting  divinity  of  state  confederations.  In  Delphi, 
at  the  “ navel  of  the  earth, where  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  as 
the  supreme  authority  in  matters  of  religion,  was  frequented 
by  all  Greek  races,  she  received  peculiar  honour,  and  in 
the  council  house  at  Olympia  her  eternal  fire  burned. 

Hestia  rejected  all  wooers,  even  Apollo  and  Poseidon. 
She  remained  a virgin  and  was  regarded  as  the  goddess  of 
chastity. 

Although  the  worship  of  Hestia  flourished  all  over 
Greece,  no  separate  temples  were  dedicated  to  her.  She 
had  a sanctuary  in  every  house  and  council  hall  ; at  every 
burnt  sacrifice  to  other  gods  libations  of  water,  oil  and 
wine  were  offered,  and  a prayer  addressed  to  her.  Her  own 
special  offerings  were  young  corn,  the  first  of  the  autumn 

* August  Preuner,  “ Hestia-Vesta.” 

J.  G.  Frazer,  “The  Prytaneum,”  in  the  Journal  of  Philology,  vol.  14, 
1885,  p.  145. 


II2 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


fruits  and  young  heifers.  Her  priestesses  must  remain 
virgins. 

In  Rome  there  was  a temple  to  Vesta^  supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  Numa  Pompilius,  It  was  round  in  shape, 


Fig.  26.  Hestia  [Rome), 


and  on  the  altar  in  the  middle  a fire  burned,  which  was 
never  extinguished  ; the  temple  was  open  during  the  day 
and  closed  at  night  ; the  Palladium,  a small  wooden  image 
of  Minerva,  which  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven 


II.] 


VESTA 


113 

into  the  citadel  of  Troy,  to  have  been  brought  thence 
to  Greece,  and  afterwards  to  Rome,  was  kept  in  strict 
seclusion  inside,  for  in  popular  belief  the  continuance 
of  the  state  depended  on  the  preservation  of  the  image. 
Vesta  had  six  priestesses  in  Rome,  called  Vestal  virgins, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  up  the  sacred  temple  flame  and 
to  offer  prayers  and  sacrifices  for  the  welfare  of  the  state. 
They  were  appointed  to  this  sacred  service  by  the  high 
priest,  Pontifex  Maximus.  Their  clothing  was  a white  robe, 
a veil  and  the  priestly  fillet.  Between  the  age  of  six  and 
ten  they  entered  on  their  office,  and  vowed  to  remain  chaste 
servants  of  the  goddess  for  thirty  years.  When  this  time 
was  expired  they  might  lay  down  their  office  and  marry, 
but  those  who  did  so  were  popularly  supposed  to  incur  the 
displeasure  of  the  goddess  to  whom  they  were  devoted. 
Vestal  virgins  were  greatly  reverenced,  and  enjoyed  many 
privileges.  Their  person  was  inviolable,  they  were  not  sub- 
ject to  paternal  rule,  and  they  might  freely  dispose  of  their 
property.  When  they  went  in  solemn  procession  through 
the  streets  of  Rome  the  lictors  carried  before  them  the 
fasces,  bundles  of  rods  containing  axes,,  the  symbol  of 
authority,  a distinction  which  they  alone  shared  with  the 
consuls,  and  if  on  such  an  occasion  a condemned  criminal 
met  the  procession,  he  might  claim  a pardon. 

This  great  reverence  to  the  person  of  the  Vestals  had  its 
counterpart  in  the  severity  with  which  their  transgressions 
were  punished.  If  a Vestal  allowed  the  sacred  fire  on  the 
altar  to  go  out — that  fire  which  might  only  be  re-lighted  by 
holding  a burning-glass  to  the  pure  rays  of  the  sun — the  high 
priest  scourged  her  with  rods  in  a dark  chamber.  For  any 
offence  against  chastity  she  was  buried  alive  on  the  Field 
of  Crime.’^  She  was  placed  in  an  underground  chamber 
with  a couch,  a burning  lamp  and  a little  bread  and  water, 

9 


II4  the  gods  of  OLYMPOS  [chap 

the  roof  was  closed  and  covered  with  earth,  and  she  was  left 
to  die.  Her  seducer  was  publicly  scourged  to  death.  When 
this  happened  the  whole  town  was  stirred  by  horror  at  the 
sight  of  the  deeply-veiled  litter  in  which  the  Vestal  was 
carried  to  her  doom.  It  was  a day  of  public  mourning, 
prayer  and  expiatory  sacrifice  to  appease  the  offended 
goddess. 

The  institution  of  the  Vestal  virgins  was  ascribed,  like  so 
many  other  developments  of  religion,  to  King  Numa 
Pompilius.  Their  number  was  at  first  two,  afterwards 
four,  and  was  increased  by  Servius  Tullius  to  six.  They 
were  always  chosen  from  the  noblest  families  of  the  city. 

Romulus  and  Remus^  the  founders  of  Rome,  were, 
according  to  the  legend,  sons  of  Mars  and  Rhea  Silvia, 
a Vestal. 

Every  year  on  the  ist  of  March  the  sacred  fire  on  the 
hearth  of  the  goddess  was  renewed  ; from  the  9th  to  the 
15th  of  June  the  temple  was  cleansed  and  purified,  and  on 
the  same  days  the  feast  of  the  Vest  alia  was  celebrated. 
Women  made  pilgrimages  to  the  temple,  and  brought 
offerings  of  food  in  clay  vessels  ; millers  and  bakers,  because 
they  cook  food  on  the  hearth,  had  a special  share  in  the 
festival,  and  even  the  asses  who  turned  the  millstones  were 
not  forgotten  in  the  distribution  of  provender. 

14.  Domestic  and  Family  Divinities  of  Rome. 

(a)  The  Penates} 

These  divinities  are  peculiar  to  Roman  mythology.  They 
are  the  spirits  who  protect  human  dwellings,  and  were 
worshipped  with  Vesta  as  gods  of  the  family  and  of  the  state 


^ f L.  Preller,  “ Romische  Mythologie. 
|j.  G.  Frazer,  “ Prytaneum,”  etc. 


II.] 


PENATES  AND  LARES 


115 

They  take  their  name  from  the  penus,  the  daily  food  which 
was  prepared  by  fire  in  their  sanctuary,  the  hearth  which 
they  shared  with  Vesta.  The  Penates  belonged  to  the  family, 
and  took  the  welfare  and  success  of  the  household  under  their 
special  care.  They  were  supposed  to  be  present  at  every 
meal,  and  food  was  handed  to  them  on  silver  plates.  In 
the  Atrium^  or  hall,  where  the  every-day  life  of  the  family 
went  on,  the  little  images  of  the  Penates  were  to  be  seen. 
In  old  times  these  images  were  rudely-fashioned  blocks  of 
wood,  but  later  they  were  replaced  by  costly  statues. 

The  public  Penates,^  protectors  of  the  Commonwealth, 
had  a temple  of  their  own  in  later  times.  In  the  round 
temple  of  Vesta  there  were  two  Penates — images  of  great 
sanctity,  representing  two  seated  youths  with  spears.  They 
perished  in  the  fire  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 

(3)  The  Lares. 

The  Lares  were,  like  the  Penates,  protecting  divinities  of 
the  home,  but  differed  from  them  in  character.  They  were 
the  disembodied  spirits  of  the  dead  who  hovered  over  their 
posterity  to  bless  and  guard  them,  and  who  lent  their  aid  in 
birth,  death,  marriage,  travel  and  all  vicissitudes  of  family 
life — hence  they  were  worshipped  in  the  Atrium,  where 
their  images  were  set  up,  and  on  every  festal  occasion 
offerings  were  brought  to  them.  The  Lares  extended  their 
beneficent  care  to  fields  and  vineyards,  streets  and  paths — 
hence  they  were  greeted  with  gifts  of  wreaths  and  flowers. 

The  Lares  publici,  or  compitales,  received  the  state 
worship  which  Servius  Tullius,  himself  called  the  son  of 
a Lar,  was  said  to  have  instituted.  Little  shrines  were 
erected  to  them  in  different  parts  of  the  town,  and  their 
festival,  the  Compitalia,  which  fell  soon  after  the  Satur- 
nalia, was  celebrated  in  town  and  country  with  dancing  and 


ii6 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS 


[chap. 


other  popular  amusements.  The  Lares  of  the  home  were 
worshipped  specially  on  the  Kalends — i.e.^  the  first  of  each 
month.  Rich  or  distinguished  persons  had  in  their  house 
a Lararium  or  domestic  chapel,  where  the  images  of  the 
Lares  were  preserved,  and  where  the  head  of  the  house 
offered  prayer  and  sacrifices. 

{c)  The  Manes. 

These  were  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  purified  and  re- 
fined by  expiatory  funeral  rites,  and  living  on  in  peace  after 
death  in  the  depths  of  the  earth.  They  were  worshipped  at 
their  tombs. 

(d)  Larvae  and  Lemures. 

Unlike  the  I.ares  and  Manes,  who  were  the  spirits  of  the 
good  departed,  the  Larvae  and  Lemures , were  ghosts  of 
those  who  had  either  died  a criminals  death,  or  been 
buried  without  due  atoning  rites.  These  unquiet  spirits 
wandered  homelessly  over  the  earth,  haunting  their  former 
dwellings  and  kindred. 

In  consecrated  earth 

And  on  the  holy  hearth, 

The  Lares  and  Lemures  moan  with  midnight-plaint.* 

They  were  malicious  tormentors,  who  could  not  even  leave 
the  dead  in  peace.  In  order  to  ward  off  their  evil  influence 
three  nights  in  the  month  of  May  were  set  apart  for  ritual 
purifications,  performed  by  each  father  of  a family.  These 
Lemuria  were  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Romulus  to 
quiet  the  ghost  of  his  brother  Remus.  It  was  commonly 
believed  that  ghosts,  appearing  in  the  form  of  skeletons, 
would  affect  with  madness  those  whom  they  visited. 


* Jdilton,  “ Hymn  on  the  Nativity.’ 


II.] 


•Janus 


117 


15.  Janus. 

Janus  was  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  but  was  one  of  the 
most  important  and  widely-worshipped  gods  of  Rome. 
To  him  was  ascribed  the  origin  of  all  things,  the  succession 
of  years,  the  alternation  of  the  seasons,  the  vicissitudes  of 
fortune,  the  continuance  of  the  human  race  and  its  progress 
in  agriculture,  art  and  religion.  . 

In  the  popular  legend  Janus  was  an  old  King  of  Latium  in 
the  Golden  Age,  who  ruled  when  gods  and  men  walked 
the  earth  together,  who  founded  temples  and  sacred 
rites  and  taught  men  many  useful  arts.  As  the  god  of 
beginnings  the  first  days  of  each  month,  and  particularly 
the  first  days  in  the  year,  were  sacred  to  him — hence  the 
first  month  was  called  January.  As  the  keeper  of  the  gate 
of  Heaven,  whence  the  sun  issues,  he  was  invoked  at  the 
beginning  of  each  new  day. 

In  everything  that  the  Romans  undertook,  they  paid 
great  attention  to  prognostications  and  omens.  Hence  the 
beginning  of  any  enterprize  was  very  important,  and  was 
always  considered  to  depend  on  the  good  will  and  approval 
of  Janus,  even  after  Jupiter  had  signified  his  consent.  If 
the  beginning  was  good  a good  issue  might  be  expected. 
Therefore  at  all  sacrifices  a libation  was  first  poured  out  to 
Janus,  and  in  all  prayers  he  ’was  named  first,  even  before 
Jupiter. 

Janus  was  specially  invoked  when  the  Roman  people 
marched  to  battle.  The  Consul  went  in  festal  attire  to  the 
temple  of  the  god,  and  on  retiring  from  it,  left  the  gates 
open,  as  a sign  that  the  god  had  taken  the  field  with  his 
own  people.  When  a peace  was  concluded  solemn  sacrifices 
were  offered  to  him,  and  the  doors  of  the  temple  were 
closed. 

In  civic  life  nothing  was  begun  without  Janus ; the 


ii8 


THE  GODS  OF  OLYMPOS  [chap.  il. 


merchant  and  the  sailor  started  on  their  voyage  under  his 
protection,  and  the  husbandman  as  he  scattered  the  seed 
prayed  to  him  for  a good  harvest.  ' 

During  the  first  seven  hundred  years  after  the  building  of 
Rome,  the  city  was  so  constantly  involved  in  war  that  the 
gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus  were  closed  only  three  times,  in 
the  reign  of  Numa  Pompilius,  after  the  first  Punic  war,  and 
in  the  time  of  Augustus. 

Numa  Pompilius  introduced  the  public  worship  of  Janus, 
and  the  city  soon  experienced  the  worth  of  his  aid.  When 
the  Sabines  penetrated  into  the  newly-built  town,  a mighty 
spring  of  boiling  water  sprang  suddenly  up  from  under 
the  gate  sacred  to  Janus,  and  destroyed  a host  of  them. 
A temple  was  built  to  the  god  on  the  very  spot  where  this 
happened.  In  this  legend  Janus  is  the  god  of  springs  and 
streams. 

Gates,  doors,  passages,  and  the  traffic  of  streets  and 
market-places  being  sacred  to  Janus,  the  two-faced  images 
of  the  god,  as  he  is  represented  on  Roman  coins,  were  often 
to  be  found  in  the  arches  of  gates.  His  most  famous  and 
ancient  temple,  whose  foundation  was  ascribed  to  Numa, 
stood  in  the  Forum.  Here  he  was  worshipped  on  the  first 
day  of  the  year,  at  the  beginning  of  each  month  and  on 
the  morning  of  every  day.  In  later  times,  when  it  became 
the  custom  for  new  state-officials  to  enter  on  office  on  the 
1st  of  January,  that  festival  of  Janus  gained  greatly  in 
brilliancy.  Every  one  gave  presents  of  sweetmeats,  cakes 
and  fruit,  while  the  houses  were  decked  with  wreaths  and 
laurel  twigs. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SEA  AND  DIVER  GODS. 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

Immerwahr  ...  ...  Mythen  imd  Kulte  Arkadiens. 

Overbeck,  Johannes  ...  Gallerie  heroischer  Bildwerke  der  alten  Kunst. 

,,  „ Atlas. 

I.  Poseidon  (Neptune). 

When  the -World  was  divided  and  Heaven  fell  to  the  share 
of  Zeus,  Poseidon  received  dominion  of  the  sea  and  all  the 
waters  of  the  earth.  He  was  the  most  powerful  god  after 
Zeus,  who  held  him  in  high  honour  and  seldom  interfered 
with-  his  rule.  The  sovereignty  of  the  sea  was  assigned  to 
Poseidon  after  he  had  shown  his  prowess  in  the  war  with 
the  giants,  and  had  overwhelmed  Polybotes  under  a rocky 
promontory  torn  from  an  island.  At  the  same  time  he 
became  lord  of  the  winds  and  ruler  of  earthquakes. 

The  Greeks  knew  the  sea  well,  both  in  calm  and  storm, 
and  every  tribe  worshipped  Poseidon  as  a mighty  god.  In 
popular  belief  Poseidon  was  the  power  who  shook  the 
mountains  asunder,  opened  valleys  and  brought  springs  out 
of  the  earth  ; it  was  he  who  drew  vapours  from  the  sea, 
and  sent  them  down  again  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of  dew 
and  rain  to  make  fountains,  streams  and  lakes,  which  in 
their  turn  feed  the  ocean. 


119 


120 


SEA  AND  RIVER  GODS 


As  god  of  fertilizing  moisture  Poseidon  was  closely  con- 
nected with  Demeter,  Dionysos  and  the  nymphs,  and 
exercised  great  influence  on  the  life  of  man.  Because  he 
can  split  steep  rocks  and  beetling  cliffs  with  his  trident,  heap 
mountains  one  upon  another  and  bring  forth  new  islands 
out  of  the  sea,  he  appears  in  one  aspect  as  a great  architect. 
There  is  a legend  that  Poseidon  was  deprived  for  a whole 
year  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  sea  because  he  had  revoTed 
against  Zeus ; during  this  time  he  was  forced  to  help 
Apollo  to  build  the  walls  of  Troy  for  King  Laomedon. 
Other  stories  say  that  th.e  two  gods  built  the  walls  of  their 
own  accord,  in  order  to  put  King  Laomedon  to  the  test,  and 
that  Laomedon  then  refused  to  give  Poseidon  the  promised 
reward.  The  god  in  his  anger  devastated  the  land  with  a 
flood  and  sent  a frightful  sea-monster,  to  whom  Laomedon’s 
daughter  Hesione  must  be  delivered  up  as  an  expiatory 
offering.  Herakles  freed  the  maiden  and  slew  the  monster. 
But  Poseidon’s  anger  still  raged  against  Troy,  he  took  the 
side  of  the  Greeks  in  the  war,  and  would  have  brought  great 
disaster  on  the  city,  if  Zeus  had  not  checked  his  fury  and 
brought  him  to  submission.  When  Troy  fell,  the  walls, 
built  by  gods,  could  not  be  destroyed  by  men,  so  Poseidon 
overthrew  them  with  his  trident.  The  Greeks  told  of  other 
monsters  sent  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  lay  waste  the 
land  as  a punishment  to  the  inhabitants.  Such  were  the 
sea-beast  to  which  Andromeda  was  to  be  sacrificed  in 
Ethiopia,  and  which  Perseus  slew,  the  Bull  of  Marathon 
killed  by  Theseus  and  the  Cretan  bull  which  Herakles 
overcame. 

Poseidon  contended  with  several  other  divinities  for  the 
possession  of  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  usually  had  the 
worst  of  the  contest,  but  the  most  important  strife  he  entered 
on  was  that  with  Athene  for  the  land  of  Attica.  The 


A SEA-GOD. 

(VATICAN,  ROME.) 


tlL] 


AMPHITRITk 


121 


gods  in  council  had  decreed  that  the  land,  with  the  citadel, 
was  to  belong  to  that  divinity  who  could  show  the  highest 
symbol  of  power  in  the  form  of  a gift  to  man.  Posei- 
don struck  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis  with  his  trident, 
and  a salt-spring  gushed  out  where  no  water  had  been 
known  to  be  before.  From  the  same  barren  rock  Athene 
made  the  first  olive  tree  grow,  and  as  the  latter  gift  was  the 
more  useful,  she  became  the  sovereign  of  the  land. 

In  the  dry  district  of  Argos,  near  Lerna,  Poseidon  struck 
the  earth  with  his  trident  and  brought  out  three  springs.. 
This  he  did  to  please  the  water-nymph  Amymone^  daughter 
of  Danaos,  who  was  sent  to  fetch  water,  and  could  not  find 
a spring,  but  he  soon  sent  the  springs  into  the  earth  again, 
because  Inachos  assigned  the  land  to  Hera. 

Poseidon  was  honoured  as  the  creator  of  the  horse,  which 
to  the  Greeks  in  later  days  became  a symbol  of  the  billows 
rolling  on  the  shore.  He  rode  through  his  realm  in  a car 
drawn  by  prancing  steeds,  while  Tritons  and  other  sea- 
creatures  followed  in  his  train. 

Amphitrite^  daughter  of  Okeanos  and  Tethys,  was  Posei- 
don’s lawful  consort,  but  he  had  other  wives,  who  bore  him 
strong,  heroic  sons.  A local  Arkadian  legend  made  Poseidon 
(in  horse’s  shape,)  and  Demeter  the  parents  of  the  wonderful 
swift-winged  horse  Arion.  According  to  the  Boeotian  tale, 
one  of  the  Erinyes  was  the  mother  of*  Arion.  Pegasos^ 
another  winged  horse,  emblem  of  poetic  inspiration,  brought 
up  by  the  nymphs  of  the  springs,  was  the  offspring  of 
Poseidon  and  Medusa.  The  god  would  often  present  to  one 
of  his  favourites  a yoke  of  wondrous  winged  horses,  distin- 
guished by  great  swiftness  and  possessing  reason  and  speech  ; 
the  team  of  Achilles  was  a present  of  the  god  to  Peleus, 
and  Pelops  overcame  Oinomaos  in  the  race  by  means  of  the 
horses  which  Poseidon  had  given  him.  The  breeding  and 


SEA  AND  RIVER  GODS 


[CHaI*. 


12^ 


rearing  of  horses,  carried  on  to  a large  extent  by  the  richer 
inhabitants  of  Greece,  was  under  his  special  patronage,  and 
knightly  equestrian  contests  formed  an  important  part  of 
his  festivals. 

Poseidon  was  imagined  as  dwelling  in  a beautiful  shining 
palace  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  exercising  from  thence  his 
rule  over  sea,  islands  and  coast-districts,  and  even  over 
inland  regions  and  mountain  ranges.  Homer  sings  of  the 


Fig.  27.  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite  [Munich), 


god’s  course  over  the  sea  : “ He  let  harness  to  the  car  his 
bronze-hooved  horses,  and  seized  the  well-wrought  lash  of 
gold  and  mounted  his  chariot,  and  forth  he  drove  across  the 
waves.  And  the  sea-beasts  frolicked  beneath  him  on  all 
sides  out  of  the  deeps,  for  well  they  knew  their  lord,  and 
with  gladness  the  sea  stood  asunder,  and  swiftly  they  sped, 
and  the  axle  of  bronze  was  not  wetted  beneath.”  * (Fig-  27.) 


' Iliad,  xiii.  20. 


III.] 


ISTHMIAN  GAMES 


123 


The  worship  of  Poseidon  was  zealously  carried  on,  with 
various  rites,  all  over  Greece,  but  especially  in  coast-towns 
and  harbours,  on  islands  and  promontories.  His  sanctuaries 
were  to  be  found  at  Aigai  and  Helike  in  Achaia,  and  the 
early  confederation  of  states  on  the  island  of  Kalaureia  was 
founded  under  his  auspices,  and  soon  grew  into  an  important 
marine  emporium.  He  was  held  in  high  reverence  in 
Athens,  the  seafaring  Ionian  races  saw  in  him  their  most 
important  protecting  divinity,  and  his  temple  on  the  pro- 
montory of  Mycale  was  the  religious  centre  for  that  part  of 
the  race  which  inhabited  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  But  by 
far  the  most  famous  sanctuary  was  the  temple  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  standing  on  a hill  in  an  ancient  pine-wood,  and 
surrounded  by  sanctuaries  of  other  divinities.  Here  in  his 
honour,  according  to  the  decree  of  Theseus,  were  celebrated 
twice  in  each  Olympiad,  in  the  season  of  autumn,  the  brilliant 
Isthmian  Games.  They  were  as  widely  famous  as  the 
Olympian  Games,  and  their  purpose  was  the  same — viz.,  to 
keep  alive  among  the  separate  Greek  nationalities  the  feeling 
of  Hellenic  unity.  The  Corinthians  were  responsible  for  all 
matters  connected  with  the  celebration,  but  the  Athenians 
had  certain  special  privileges.  This  was  the  chief  festival 
of  Poseidon  as  sea-god  and  patron  of  horse-rearing.  The 
victor  in  the  races  was  rewarded  with  a wreath  of  pine.  In 
the  sacred  grove  which  surrounded  the  temple  the  Greeks 
piously  preserved  the  Argonauts^  ship  Argo^  to  be  a monu- 
ment of  the  first  great  sea  expedition,  and  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Persians  by  the  Athenian  fleet  a colossal  brazen  statue 
of  Poseidon  was  set  up  in  his  sanctuary.  Horses  and  oxen 
were  sacrificed  alive  to  the  god  by  being  plunged  into  the 
sea,  and  any  one  who  had  escaped  from  a shipwreck  hung  up 
a votive  gift  in  his  temple. 

Another  joyous  festival  was  celebrated  every  year  on  the 


124 


SA'A  AND  DIVED  GODS 


[chap. 


island  of  Tenos,  and  attended  by  great  crowds  of  people 
from  the  adjacent  islands.  In  Thessaly  Poseidon  was 
worshipped  as  creator  of  the  fruitful  valley-land.  The 
legend  was  that  in  ancient  times  the  whole  valley  had  been 
shut  in  by  mountains  and  covered  with  water,  and  that 
Poseidon  had  broken  the  mountain  range  asunder  with 
his  trident  and  allowed  the  water  to  flow  down  the  vale  of 
Tempe  to  the  sea.  He  was  worshipped  in  well-watered 
Boeotia,  prosperous  in  agriculture  and  cattle-rearing, 
in  the  rough  hilly  country  of  Arkadia,  with  rapid  rivers 
and  rich  meadow  valleys,  where  corn  was  grown,  and  horses 
and  cattle  fed,  and  where  the  sea-god  was  said  to  have 
loved  Demeter,  goddess  of  the  fruitful  field — and  in  many 
other  places. 

The  same  divinity  was  called  Nepiunus  among  the 
Romans.  Being  shepherds  and  husbandmen,  they  had 
little  connection  with  the  sea,  and  seem  to  have  regarded 
Neptunus  chiefly  as  the  patron  of  horse-rearing.  Every 
year  they  celebrated  a festival  in  his  honour  in  his  only 
temple  in  Rome,  which  stood  on  the  Campus  Martius,  near 
the  Circus  Maximus.  They  encamped  in  huts  and  indulged 
in  banquets,  games  and  carousals.  In  later  times,  when 
the  Romans  had  become  a marine  people  through  their 
wars  with  the  Carthaginians,  every  admiral  who  embarked 
with  a fleet  first  brought  an  offering  to  Neptune  and 
plunged  it  into  the  sea.  The  wife  of  Neptune  was  Salacia^ 
goddess  of  the  salt  water  ; Triton  was  their  son. 

2.  Amphitrite. 

Amphitrite  was  the  wife  of  Poseidon.  Some  call  her 
daughter  of  Okeanos  and  Tethys,  others  a Nereid  whom 
the  sea-god  carried  away  as  she  was  dancing  with  her  sisters 
on  the  island  of  Naxos.  One  story  says  that  she  fled  from 


III.] 


TRITON 


125 


the  god’s  pursuit  to  the  deepest  depths  of  the  sea,  at  the 
root  of  Mount  Atlas,  and  that  her  hiding-place  was  revealed 
by  Poseidon’s  sharp-eyed  attendant,  the  dolphin.  As  sea- 
goddess,  Amphitrite  rules  the  waves  and  billows,  but  the 
wonderful  creatures  of  the  sea  are  her  special  charge.  In 
art  Amphitrite  appears  in  a chariot  with  Poseidon,  or 
riding  on  a dolphin.  She  has  flowing  clinging  hair,  some- 
times adorned  with  lobster-claws,  and  is  attended  by  Tritons 
and  sea-monsters. 

3.  Attendants  of  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite. 

Besides  the  supreme  god  Poseidon  and  his  royal  wife  the 
sea  was  peopled,  in  the  imagination  of  the  Greeks.,  by  a vast 
number  of  lesser  divinities.  In  a country  like  Greece,  whose 
coast  is  so  much  indented  by  creeks  and  bays,  it  was  natural 
that  the  sea  should  play  a large  part  in  popular  legend,  that 
storms  and  calms  alike  should  be  referred  to  the  action  of 
some  divinity,  and  especially  that  the  mysterious  unfathom- 
able sea-bottom  should  be  thought  of  as  the  home  of  a 
motley  crowd  of  shapes,  some  fair  and  human  and  others 
loathly  and  terrible. 

{a)  Triton  and  the  Tritons  I 

These  are  the  chief  followers  of  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite. 
Triton  was  regarded  as  their  son,  or  perhaps  son  of  Okeanos 
and  Tethys.  He  heralded  Poseidon’s  approach  by  blowing 
on  a twisted  shell,  and  could  raise  the  sea  with  a stormy 
blast  or  quiet  it  with  soothing  melodies.  He  would  draw 
Poseidon’s  car  through  the  waves,  and  assemble  the  other 
sea-gods  with  the  sound  of  his  shell. 

In  later  legend  there  were  many  Tritons,  all  repetitions 
of  the  original  one  and  fulfilling  the  same  functions.  They 

* Jakob  Escher,  “ Triton  und  Seine  Bekainpfung.” 


126 


SEA  AND  DIVER  GODS 


[chap. 


are  bold,  lawless  fellows,  who  often  chase  the  sea-nymphs. 
According  to  some  legends,  Triton  came  to  land  in  the 
form  of  a huge  sea-monster,  and  only  gods  like  Dionysos, 
and  strong  heroes  like  Herakles,  could  master  him.  It  was 
said  that  even  the  giants,  when  they  fought  against  Zeus, 
were  terrified  by  the  tones  of  his  shell-trumpet. 

Triton  and  the  Tritons  are  represented  with  a human 
body  to  the  waist,  covered  with  little  scales,  ending  in  the 
tail  of  a dolphin  or  sea-snake.  They  are  harnessed  to  the 
car  of  Poseidon,  and  hold  conch-shells  in  their  hands. 

(3)  Proteus} 

Like  the  Tritons,  Proteus  is  a servant  of  Poseidon.  He 
used  to  feed  the  herds  of  sea-cows  and  seals,  and  drive  them 
every  day  to  the  island  of  Pharos,  so  that  they  might  sun 
themselves  on  the  beach.  Here  the  cunning  “ old  man  of 
the  sea  was  caught  by  Menelaos,  who  wished  to  force  him 
to  exercise  his  prophetic  power.  Proteus  changed  himself 
into  a lion,  a boar,  a panther  and  other  beasts,  trying  thus 
to  escape  from  the  hero,  but  Menelaos  held  hini.  fast,  and 
forced  him  to  tell  him  all  he  knew. 

(c)  Glaukos  Pontios, 

This  divinity,  one  of  the  less-important  sea-gods,  was  of 
a kindly  and  good-humoured  disposition,  a favourite  of 
boatmen  and  fishers,  because  he  had  once  been  a man  like 
themselves.  He  was  a beautiful  youth  of  Anthedon,  on  the 
coast  of  Boeotia,  who,  being  inspired  by  eating  of  a magic 
herb,  leaped  into  the  sea,  was  kindly  received  by  the  gods  in 
its  depths  and  became  a prophetic  divinity,  the  protector  of 
ships. 


^ Homer,  Od.  iv.  382. 


III.] 


NEREUS 


127 


(d)  Nereus  and  the  Nereids, 

Far  in  the  west,  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  in  untroubled 
calm,  removed  from  all  noise  and  business  of  the  world, 
lived  the  venerable  kind-hearted  old  sea-god  Nereus,,  and 
Doris^  his  wife.  Like  other  sea-divinities,  he  had  the  gift  of 


Fig.  28.  Nereid  {Naples). 


prophecy,  and  could  change  his  shape  as  he  would.  He  was 
surrounded  by  a band  of  blooming  daughters,  the  Nereids, 
or  sea-nymphs,  known  to  all  the  Greeks  as  friendly  and 
helpful  divinities.  On  moonlight  nights  these  fair  and 
graceful  maidens  would  sport  with  the  Tritons  on  the  calm 


128 


SEA  AND  RIVER  GODS 


[chap. 


surface  of  the  sea,  or  swim  up  the  rivers  to  dance  and  sing 
on  their  banks.  Sometimes  they  would  sit  on  the  sunny 
shore  to  dry  their  wet  hair,  but  they  always  fled  human 
company.  The  names  of  the  Nereids,  to  the  number  of 
fifty  or  a hundred,  recall  the  glitter  on  the  surface  when  the 
sea  is  calm,  the  play  of  the  tireless  ripples,  the  gentle  plash 
of  the  waves  against  the  shore — in  short,  all  the  softer  and 
more  attractive  aspects  of  the  ocean.  (Fig.  28.) 

The  most  distinguished  Nereid,  after  Amphitrite,  is 
Thetis^  for  Zeus  himself  would  have  wed  her.  But  when 
it  was  foretold  that  Thetis’  son  should  be  greater  than  his 
father,  Zeus  gave  her  as  consort  to  the  mortal  Peleus, 
After  she  had  borne  him  Achilles^  the  renowned  hero,  she 
went  back  to  her  sisters  in  the  sea,  and  became  once  more 
the  leader  of  their  choric  dances.  The  Nereid  Galateia^^ 
beloved  by  the  Cyclops  Polyphemos^  was  specially  worshipped 
by  the  Greeks  in  Lower  Italy. 

(e)  Ino  Leucothea  and  Melikertes  Palaimon?’ 

Ino  Leiikothea  was  a goddess  worshipped  on  the  isthmus 
of  Corinth,  in  conjunction  with  Poseidon,  chiefly  by  sea- 
faring men.  When  Odysseus  was  in  danger  on  the  sea 
and  about  to  sink,  she  threw  him  her  veil  as  a support. 
Ino  was  said  to  have  been  a daughter  of  Kadmos,  and  the 
wife  of  Athamas,  She  adopted  the  babe  Dionysos  out  of 
pity,  when  her  sister  Semele  was  dead,  and  thus  drew  down 
upon  herself  and  her  husband  the  anger  of  Hera.  Athamas, 
being  struck  with  madness,  slew  his  eldest  son  by  dashing 
him  against  a rock,  and  pursued  Ino,  who  fled  with  her 
youngest  child  Melikertes.  When  she  saw  there  was  no 

‘ Theokritos,  Idyll  xi. 

*Otto  Crusius,  “ Beitrage  zur  griechischen  Mythologie  und  Religions- 
' geschichte.”  1886.  Thomas  Schule  Programme,  No.  498. 


III.] 


THE  SIRENS 


129 


other  way  of  escape,  she  rushed  to  a high  cliff  near  the 
Isthmus,  and  sprang  into  the  sea,  where  she  was  received 
by  the  Nereids  and  became  immortal  like  them.  She  and 
her  son  Melikertes  were  thought  of  as  gods  who  rescued 
men  from  the  dangers  of  storm,  and  were  called  Leukothea 
and  Palaimon, 

i^f)  Seireiies  {Sirens)! 

The  Sirens  are  usually  known  as  daughters  of  Phorkys 
and  Keto^  the  destructive  sea-goddess,  but  some  legends  call 
them  children  of  the  River  Achelods  and  a Muse.  At  first 
they  were  nymphs,  and  beautiful  like  their  sisters,  but 
because  they  did  not  come  to  the  help  of  Persephone  when 
she  was  carried  off  by  Hades,  Demeter  changed  them  into 
beings  with  bird-bodies  and  human  faces.  The  usual  story 
is  that  the  Sirens  dwelt  on  the  steep  rocky  islets  between 
Italy  and  Sicily,  that  they  enticed  with  their  magic  song 
those  who  sailed  by,  and  slew  them  when  they  landed. 
Round  their  dwelling  lay  a mass  of  human  bones,  whitening 
in  the  sun.  In  the  Homeric  poems  the  Sirens  are  of  no 
definite  number  ; later  three  are  named,  ParthenopCy  Ligeia 
and  Leukosia.  They  sang  so  beautifully  that  they  could 
venture  to  compete  with  the  Muses,  but  they  were  defeated, 
and  the  Muses,  to  punish  them,  plucked  out  their  finest 
wing-feathers,  and  adorned  themselves  with  them. 

It  was  fated  that  the  Sirens  should  exercise  their  deadly 
power  over  men  until  a mariner  hear  but  remain  untouched 
by  their  song.  The  Argonauts  sailed  past,  being  so  en- 
entranced  by  the  matchless  music  of  Orpheus,  that  they  paid 

/Otto  Crusius,  “Die  Epiphanie  der  Sirenen,”  in  Philologus^  Band 
1.,  Heft  i.,  Gottingen,  1891. 

» - Jane  E.  Harrison, “ Myths  of  the  Odyssey,”  ch.  v.  (The  Myth  of 
the  Sirens). 

Tbid.,  “ Mythology  and  Monuments,”  Div.  E,  Sect.  xxiv. 

10 


130 


SEA  AND  RIVER  GODS 


[chap. 


no  heed  to  the  Sirens.  When  Odysseus  sailed  by  he 
stopped  the  ears  of  his  sailors  with  wax,  and  made  them 
bind  him  to  the  mast,  so  that  he  could  hear  the  song  but 
could  not  follow  its  enticement.  Then  the  prophecy  was 
fulfilled,  and  the  Sirens,  in  despair,  threw  themselves  into 
the  sea  and  were  changed  into  rocks. 

The  Sirens  are  sometimes  supposed  to  personify  sunken 
shoals,  over  which  the  water  is  smooth  and  inviting,  but 
which  destroy  ships  that  go  aground  on  them.  The  Sirens’ 
enchanting  song  may  mean  the  gentle  musical  rush  of  the 
waves,  or  may  be  simply  a symbolic  expression  of  charm. 

[g)  Okeanos  and  the  Okeanides, 

Okeanos^  an  ancient  sea-god,  son  of  Ouranos  and  Gaia, 
was  the  parent  of  a great  family  of  water  divinities  called 
Okeanides.  Tethys  was  their  mother.  Okeanos  was  said  to 
have  been  more  righteous  than  his  brothers,  the  Titans,  and 
to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  conspiracy  against  Ouranos. 
Therefore  he  kept  his  realm  when  the  other  Titans  were 
banished  to  Tartaros,  and  lived  far  away  in  the  West, 
untouched  by  everything  that  went  on  in  the  world.  Hera 
grew  up  under  the  care  of  Okeanos  and  his  wife,  and  she 
took  refuge  with  them  while  the  Titans  were  warring  against 
Heaven.  The  race  of  Okeanos  spread  to  rivers,  brooks  and 
springs,  and  grew  so  numerous  that  the  god  was  said  to 
have  three  thousand  sons.  The  great  river,  which  sur- 
rounded the  earth  in  a circle,  and  from  which  all  the  waters 
and  streams  of  the  earth  sprang,  was  called  by  his  name. 
The  gods  of  rivers  were  sons,  nymphs  of  smaller  streams  and 
fountains  daughters  of  Okeanos.  They  were  everywhere 
worshipped  as  gods  of  prosperity  and  fertility,  and  lived 
under  springs  or  in  river-beds.  They,  too,  like  the  regular 
sea-gods,  possessed  the  gift  of  shape-shifting.  Achelpos,  the 


hlJ 


OKEANOS 


131 


132 


SEA  AMD  RIVER  GODS 


[CHAP.  in. 


largest  river  in  Greece,  was  most  revered  ; the  Alpheios,  in 
Peloponnesus,  was  held  in  high  honour.  It  is  well  known 
what  a great  effect  on  the  imagination  of  the  ancients  was 
exercised  by  the  Nile  and  other  rivers  bounding  the  known 
world.  Fig.  29  shows  the  river-god  as  a bearded  man 
leaning  on  a sphinx  and  surrounded  by  merry  children 
at  play. 

It  is  plain  that  Okeanos  and  his  tribe  are  specially  gods  of 
the  fresh  water  and  its  fertilizing  influence  on  agriculture, 
while  Nereus,  with  his  daughters,  are  gods  of  the  salt  un- 
harvested sea,  sometimes  kindly  helping  the  merchant  and 
the  sailor,  sometimes  rousing  the  sea  to  furious  storms. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
EARTH^GODS. 


Euripides... 

Mueller,  H.  D. 
Crusius,  Otto 

Frazer,  J.  G. 
Mannhardt,  W. 

»>  j» 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

...  Bacchse. 

Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter. 

...  Mythologie  der  griechischen  Stamme. 

...  Beitrage  zur  griechischen  Mythologie  und  Religion? 
geschichte. 

...  The  Golden  Bough. 

...  Mythologische  Forschungen  (Demeter). 

...  Wald  und  Feldkulte. 


I.  Gaia  (Ge,  Goea). 

Gata  is  the  kind  earth-mother,  who  fosters  every  living 
thing,  and  to  whom  everything  on  the  earth  owes  its  being. 
The  gods  dwell  in  her  realm,  the  violent  giants  and  Titans 
are  her  sons,  and  men  are  her  offspring,  who  return  again 
after  death  to  her  dark  bosom.  Thus  Gaia  appears  as  an 
underworld  goddess  by  the  side  of  Hades  and  Persephone. 
In  her  care  for  the  offspring  of  the  fields  and  of  the  human 
race  her  functions  are  mingled  with  those  of  other  gods, 
especially  Demeter  and  Themis.  Hence  it  often  happened 
that  her  cult  gave  way  to  the  worship  of  these  more  popular 
goddesses. 

Gaia,  like  Rhea,  was  worshipped  as  mother  of  the  gods, 
and  especially  of  Zeus.  As  she  belongs  to,  and  is  inseparable 

133 


134 


EARTH^GODS 


[chap. 


from  the  earth,  she  is  often  represented  with  the  upper  half 
of  her  body  free,  and  the  lower  part  embedded  in  the  earth. 
Demeter  was  a daughter  of  Kronos  and  Rhea,  and  sister 


Fig.  30.  Demeter  {yatican,  Rome)^ 

2.  Demeter  (Ceres).* 

of  Zeus,  Poseidon,  and  Plouton.  (Fig.  30.)  She  bore  to 
Zeus  a daughter,  Persephone,  with  whom  she  is  often 


* Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter. 


IV.] 


DEMETER 


135 


associated  in  cultus.  The  ancients  thought  of  Demeter  as 
an  earth-goddess  in  the  sense  of  the  nurturing  mother  who 
brings  forth  countless  fruits  for  human  food. 

The  plant  which  is  the  most  indispensable  in  the  life  of 
man  is  corn.  Now,  as  this  was  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar 
gift  of  Demeter,  the  goddess  was  called  the  inventor  of 
agriculture  and  founder  of  the  civic  community.  Until  her 
coming  men,  it  was  thought,  had  wandered  about  in  a savage 
condition,  subsisting  on  acorns  and  roots,  but  she  instructed 
them  in  more  civilized  habits.  They  became  attached  to 
the  country  of  their  birth,  learned  the  meaning  of  property, 
and  grew  accustomed  to  the  conception  of  law  ; they  passed 
in  fact  from  the  nomadic  to  the  agricultural  stage.  Her 
name,  Thesmophoros,  probably  derived  from  the  rite  of  the 
Thesmophoria,  was  by  later  theorists  interpreted  to  mean 
“ Law-giver.^ ^  *  * 

The  most  significant  legend  connected  with  the  cult  of 
Demeter  is  that  of  the  rape  of  Persephone,  her  daughter,  by 
Plouton,  god  of  the  underworld.  Sicily  was  the  favourite 
scene  of  the  rape. 

“ That  fair  field 

Of  Enna,  where  Proserpine  gathering  flowers, 

Herself  a fairer  flower,  by  gloomy  Dis 

^ Was  gathered,  which  cost  Ceres  all  that  pain 

To  seek  her  through  the  world.”  ^ 

Persephone  was  plucking  flowers  with  her  companions, 
Artemis,  Athene,  Aphrodite  and  the  nymphs,  when  the 
dark  god  Aides  rose  from  a cleft  in  the  earth  in  his  chariot 
drawn  by  black  horses,  and,  seizing  her,  plunged  with  her 
below  the  earth. 

The  sorrowing  Demeter  wandered  long  to  seek  her  child. 


* J.  G.  Frazer,  Article,  “ Thesmophoria,”  in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica. 

* Milton,  “ Paradise  Lost,”  iv.  268. 


136 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


continuing  the  search  every  night  by  torchlight.  Hekate 
could  give  her  no  news  of  her  daughter,  and  she  sought  in 
vain  nine  days  and  nine  nights.  At  last  Helios,  from  whom 
nothing  is  hidden,  told  her  that  Plouton  had  taken  Perse- 
phone to  be  his  bride  and  queen  of  the  realm  of  shadows, 
and  that  all  had  happened  according  to  the  will  of  Zeus.  In 
her  grief  and  agony  Demeter  withdrew  from  men.  She 
gave  no  more  gifts  to  the  land,  and  when  Zeus  saw  that  men 
and  beasts  were  dying  of  hunger,  he  was  forced  to  give  way. 
Hermes  was  sent  to  the  underworld  to  fetch  Persephone,  but 
as  she  had  already  eaten  of  a pomegranate  which  Plouton 
gave  her,  she  was  for  ever  bound  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
dead.  She  passed  the  winter  months  with  her  husband  in 
the  dark  underworld,  but  in  spring,  when  the  first  tiny 
shoots  appear  and  the  first  flowers  deck  the  meadow,  Perse- 
phone comes  to  her  rejoicing  mother,  and  together  they 
watch  the  young  blade,  ripen  the  ear  and  see  the  sheaves 
reaped  and  the  corn  threshed. 

“ Once  more  the  reaper,  in  the  gleam  of  dawn 
Will  see  me,  by  the  landmark  far  away 
Blessing  his  field — a-seated  in  the  dusk 
Of  even,  by  the  lonely  threshing-floor. 

Rejoicing  in  the  harvest  and  the  grange.”* 

When  winter  comes,  and  Nature  goes  to  rest,  Persephone 
must  descend  and  remain  in  Hades  until  the  spring  comes 
round  again. 

While  Demeter  was  wandering  about  to  seek  her  vanished 
daughter,  she  came  to  Eleusis,  which  lies  in  Attica  on  the 
Gulf  of  Salamis.  . She  was  weary  and  sat  down  by  a spring. 
The  daughter^  of  King  Keleos^  coming  to  draw  water, 
greeted  the  stranger  kindly  and  brought  her  to  their  father’s 
house,  where  she  remained  as  nurse  of  the  young  Demo- 


* A.  Tennyson. 


IV.] 


TRIPTOLEMOS 


137 


phon  (or  Triptolemos).  She  loved  the  child,  and  determined 
to  make  him  immortal  by  means  of  fire. 

“ Plis  nurse,  the  mighty  Mother,  willed  it  so, 

Warm  in  her  breast,  by  day 
He  slumber’d,  and  ambrosia  balm’d  the  child  ; 

But  all  night  long  amid  the  flames  he  lay. 

Upon  the  hearth,  and  played  with  them,  and  smiled.”  * 


Fig.  31.  Heiron  Vase ; Starting  of  Triptolemos  {British  Museum). 


It  happened  that  the  mother  of  Demophon  came  in  just 
as  Demeter  was  holding  him  in  the  flame  of  the  fire  ; she 
screamed  in  terror,  and  thus  frustrated  the  intention  of  the 
goddess.  Demeter  afterwards  gave  her  foster-child  ears  of 
corn,  and  sent  him  out  into  the  world  on  a winged  car 
drawn  by  dragons,  that  he  might  teach  all  men  how  to  sow 
and  cultivate  corn.  (Fig.  31.) 


^ M.  Arnold. 


EARTH.GODS 


[chap. 


138 


The  fact  that  prosperity  and  wealth  depend  on  agriculture 
is  symbolized  in  another  tale,  viz.,  the  marriage  of  Demeter 
with  Jasion  of  Crete,  a famous  tiller  of  the  soil.  Their  son 
was  Plouton,  the  god  of  wealth. 

Demeter  was  worshipped  on  the  island  of  Crete,  which 
very  early  became  the  seat  of  a flourishing  civilization,  and 
also  all  over  Greece,  wherever  agriculture  was  carried  on, 
especially  at  Eleusis.  The  union  of  Demeter  and  Zeus  may 
perhaps  symbolize  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  sky,  with  its 
sunshine  and  showers,  upon  the  earth.  Every  year,  in  autumn, 
harvest  festivals,  called  Haloa  or  Thalysia,  were  celebrated 
with  sacrifices,  banquets  and  merry-making,  in  honour  of  the 
goddess.  During  five  days  of  October,  in  the  village  of 
Halimus,  near  Athens,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Greece, 
the  famous  festival  of  the  Thesmophoria  ^ was  held.  The 
celebration  was  strictly  secret,  and  only  married  women 
were  allowed  to  take  part  in  it.  Demeter  was  worshipped 
on  these  occasions  as  mother  of  Kore,  and  prayers  were 
offered  to  her  by  mortal  women  that  they  might,  like  her- 
self, be  blessed  with  offspring.  The  legend  of  the  rape  of 
Persephone  and  the  grief  of  the  goddess  at  the  loss  of  her 
child  have  probably  nothing  to  do  with  the  Thesmophoria. 
They  form,  however,  the  chief  subject  of  the  Eleusinia,  a 
festival  which  the  goddess  herself  is  said  to  have  founded 
when  she  rested  at  Eleusis  during  her  wanderings.  The 
Eumolpidai^  high  priests  of  Eleusis,  traced  their  origin  from 
Eumolpos,  and  to  them  the  charge  of  the  festival  was 
entrusted. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  Eleusinia,^  the  lesser,  in  spring, 
and  the  greater,  during  nine  days  of  September.  On  the 


I August  Mommsen,  “ Heortologie.’* 

1 J.  G.  Fraser,  “ Thesmophoria,”  in  Encyclop(Bdia  Britannica. 
Ramsay,  “ Mysteries,”  in  EncyclopcBdia  Britannica, 


IV.] 


ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES 


139 


night  of  the  20th  of  September  the  festival  began  with  a 
torchlight  procession  to  Eleusis,  accompanied  by  music. 
The  chief  days  were  occupied  by  a dramatic  representation 
of  the  sorrowful  story  of  Demeter,  and  a pilgrimage  to  the 
places  with  which  the  events  of  the  myth  were  associated, 
such  as  the  “ stone  of  grief  on  which  Demeter  sat  in  dumb 
anguish,  the  spot  where  she  first  took  food  after  her  long 
fast,  and  the  place  where  she  was  re-united  to  her  daughter. 

Initiation  into  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  was  granted 
exclusively  to  free-born  Greeks,  never  to  slaves  or  criminals, 
and  only  in  part  to  strangers.  Long  probation  w^s  necessary, 
the  purpose  of  which  was  to  inculcate  the  higher  meaning 
of  the  legend  of  Kore,  and  the  worthy  observance  of  the 
sacred  rites.  These  rites  were  held  in  secret,  and  we  do  not 
know  the  details  of  the  celebration,  but  we  gather  that  they 
made  a profound  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  partici- 
pants, and  that  their  symbolism  gave  comfort  for  the 
present  life,  and  some  suggestion  of  a renewed  existence 
after  death. 

“ Blessed  is  he  among  men  who  is  given  these  rites  to  know, 

But  the  uninitiate  man,  the  man  without,  must  go 
To  no  such  happy  lot,  when  dead  in  the  world  below.”  ^ 

The  Romans  worshipped  Ceres  as  goddess  of  fertility 
and  harvest.  She  was  an  old  Italian  goddess,  but  her  cultus 
was  very  early  fused  with  that  of  the  Greek  Demeter.  The 
Cerealia  were  celebrated  in  spring  with  solemn  offerings, 
processions  and  banquets,  and  were  immediately  followed  by 
the  similar  festival  to  Tellus^  the  earth,  as  fruit-giver,  whose 
functions  and  meaning  were  almost  exactly  identical  with 
those  of  Ceres.  The  priest  of  Ceres,  called  Flamen 
Cerealis^  belonged  to  the  plebeian  Flamines,  showing  that 
Ceres  remained  a goddess  peculiarly  of  the  lower  classes. 


* Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter. 


140 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


Art  represents  Demeter  as  a majestic  matron,  clothed  in 
a long  garment  ; poppies  and  ears  of  corn  are  wreathed 
round  her  head,  or  held  as  attributes  in  her  hand  ; on 
sarcophagi  sometimes  she  carries  a sickle  or  a torch. 


Frequently  she  is  seated  on  a car  drawn  by  dragons,  and 
is  pursuing  Hades  as  he  carries  away  her  child.  Her  face 
expresses  dignity  and  benevolence,  with  a touch  of  melan- 
choly, for  her  sorrow  is  renewed  every  autumn,  when  her 


IV.]  DIONYSOS  14 1 

daughter  must  go  below  to  the  gloomy  palace  of  her 
husband.  (Fig.  32.) 

3.  Dionysos  or  Bakchos  (Bacchus). *  * 

Dionysos  is  the  symbol  of  the  irresistible  power  of 
growth  in  nature,  showing  itself  especially  in  spring.  It  is 
he  who  makes  the  trees  and  fruits  thrive,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  taught  the  Greeks  how  to  cultivate  the  vine  and 
prepare  wine  from  grapes. 


Fig.  33.  Dionysos  on  the  Monument  of  Lysikrates  {Athens). 


Thebes  was  generally  considered  to  be  the  home  of 
Dionysos.  Semele^  ^ daughter  of  the  king  of  Thebes, 
was  beloved  by  Zeus,  and  thus  roused  the  jealous  anger  of 
Hera.  The  goddess  approached  Semele  in  disguise,  and 
persuaded  her  to  ask  Zeus  to  visit  her  in  all  his  heavenly 
majesty  as  Thunderer.  Zeus  tried  in  vain  to  induce  Semele 

* W.  Roscher,  “Ausfiihrliches  Lexikon  ” (Dionysos). 

Homeric  Hymn  to  Dionysos. 

* • P.  Kretschmer,  “ Semele  und  Dionysos,*’  p.  I7,in  Atis  der  Anomia^ 

Karl  Robert  dargebracht,  Berlin  1890. 


142 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


to  retract  her  request,  but  as  he  had  sworn  an  unalterable 
oath  by  the  Styx,  he  was  forced  to  fulfil  her  wish.  Semele 
perished  by  the  flame  of  the  thunderbolt,  but  Zeus  rescued 
his  child  Dionysos  from  the  flames  and  gave  him  into  the 
charge  of  Hermes,  who  brought  him  to  the  nymphs  of 
Nysa.  There  the  boy  grew  up,  shielded  by  the  nymphs 
from  the  anger  of  Hera,  and  taught  by  Sei'lenos,  son  of  Pan, 
how  to  control  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest.  (Fig.  33.) 
When  Dionysos  was  grown,  he  invented  the  culture  of  the 
vine,  and,  with  his  following  of  nymphs  and  satyrs,  carried 
its  fruits  all  over  the  world.  He  began  his  wanderings  in 
the  mountains  and  forests  of  his  native  land,  and  having 
made  a triumphal  progress  through  all  Asia,  he  returned  to 
Greece.  His  power  was  irresistible.  To  those  who  received 
him  hospitably  he  gave  the  care-dispelling,  grief-assuaging 
gift  of  wine,  filling  them  with  mirth  and  pleasure,  but  he 
punished  his  enemies  with  torments  and  a cruel  death. 
The  legend  of  the  Thracian  Lykourgos  is  one  of  many  on 
this  subject.  This  gloomy  and  savage  king  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  worship  of  Dionysos,  and  even 
wished  to  drive  him  away  by  force.  The  Mainads  fled  in 
fear,  and  the  god  himself  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
the  sea  with  Thetis.  Lykourgos  was  punished  with  blind- 
ness, or,  as  some  say,  he  was  struck  mad,  and  slew  himself 
and  his  son.  * 

Pentheus,  too,  the  cruel  king  of  Thebes,  had  to  experience 
the  revenge  of  Dionysos.  When  the  Theban  women, 
Agave^  mother  of  Pentheus,  at  their  head,  were  inspired 
by  Dionysos,  and  rushed  from  the  city  at  night,  to  hold 
their  revels  in  the  woods,  Pentheus  followed  them  and 
spied  their  doings  from  the  branches  of  a high  pine  tree. 
Agave,  in  her  frenzy,  thought  he  was  a wild  beast,  and 


* Homer,  Iliad  vi.  130. 


IV.] 


ARIADNE 


143 


brought  him  to  a grievous  end.  He  was  dragged  from  the 
tree  and  torn  asunder  by  the  Mainads. 

Another  well-known  legend  relates  the  capture  of 
Dionysos  by  Tyrrhenian  pirates.  They  bound  him,  but 
the  fetters  fell  off,  while  springing  vine  and  ivy  tendrils 
wreathed  themselves  round  mast  and  sails.  The  ship 
stood  still,  the  pirates  were  seized  with  terror  and  madness 
and  threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  where  they  were  at 
once  transformed  into  dolphins.* 

On  the  island  of  Naxos  Theseus  had  left  the  sleeping 
Ariadne^  daughter  of  Minos.  (Fig.  34.)  While  she  wept 
and  gazed  after  his  vanishing  sail,  Dionysos,  in  his  glowing 
youthful  beauty,  appeared  surrounded  by  all  his  train. 
Ariadne  became  the  bride  of  Dionysos,  and  was  received 
with  him  into  Olympos. 

Dionysos  holds  a conspicuous  place,  not  only  as 
fosterer  of  corn  and  vine  culture,  but  as  protector  of 
human  institutions,  who  had  taught  men  jurisprudence 
and  other  arts  of  peace.  Dionysos  had  come  to  the  aid 
of  Herakles  when  the  kingdom  of  Zeus  was  established,  and 
in  his  own  form  or  in  that  of  a raging  lion  he  played  an 
important  part  in  the  defeat  of  the  giants. 

Wherever  the  vine  grew  on  Greek  soil  we  find  the 
cultus  of  Dionysos.  The  legend  of  his  wanderings  through 
Asia  and  many  features  of  his  ritual,  point  to  a mixture 
of  Asiatic  and  Greek  customs.  In  the  worship  of  Rhea- 
Kybele,  as  we  have  seen,  fanatical  excitement,  a common 
feature  of  Eastern  ritual  drove  her  worshippers  to  wander 
at  night,  with  torchlight  and  music,  over  hills  and 
through  forests.  Similar  features  in  the  legends  of 
Pentheus  and  Lykourgos  seem  to  indicate  that  the  orgi- 

, Mythology  and  Monuments,’’  J.  £.  H.,  Div.  C,  Sect.  xh. 

I Homeric  Hymn. 


EARTH^GODS 


[chap. 


astic  revelling  aspect  of  Dionysos  was  an  importation 
into  Greece  from  the  East.  This  wild,  nocturnal  ritual 


was  not  connected  with  the  joyous  god  of  the  vine  and 
spring  freshness,  but  with  the  suffering  tortured  Dionysos, 


IV.l 


THE  DIONYSIA 


145 


type  of  Nature  dying  in  the  cold  of  winter.  Only  women 
were  present  at  these  ritual  practices.  Parnassos  in 
Boeotia,  a mountain  covered  with  snow  far  on  into  the 
spring,  was  the  place  to  which  women  and  girls  from  all 
parts  of  Greece,  even  from.  Athens,  made  pilgrimage. 
Wild  animals  were  torn  in  pieces,  and  as  late  as  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  In 
his  ceaseless  processions  Dionysos  was  attended  by  a wild, 
noisy  crowd  of  Mainads,  or  Bacchantes,  Satyrs,  Nymphs, 
wood  and  river  gods,  while  Seilenos  and  Pan  never  failed 
to  join  the  rout.  Waving  thyrsoi  and  torches,  beating 
drums  and  cymbals,  singing  and  blowing  flutes,  the 
revellers  rushed  along.  A countless  crowd  of  women 
and  girls,  and  even  men,  drunk  with  fiery  wine,  reckless 
with  enthusiasm,  cast  sobriety  to  the  winds  and  carried  on 
their  orgies  for  many  days  and  nights  on  the  wooded  hills. 

The  festival  of  the  greater  Dionysia,*  held  at  Athens 
during  the  first  half  of  March  in  every  third  year,  although 
not  lacking  in  jest  and  merriment,  was  yet  of  a compara- 
tively sober  character.  This  was  the  great,  brilliant  spring 
festival  of  the  Athenians,  which  showed  the  city  in  her 
gala  attire  to  all  the  allies,  neighbours  and  friends  who 
flocked  together  for  the  occasion.  At  this  season  Dionysos 
Lysios  loosed  Nature  from  the  bonds  of  winter,  and  the 
minds  of  men  from  care  and  anxiety.  No  one  was  shut 
out  from  this  celebration  ; even  prisoners  had  their 
share.  For  three  days  the  festival  continued,  and  citizens 
vied  with  each  other  to  celebrate  it  with  due  pomp.  On  the 
first  day  the  ancient  image  of  the  god  was  carried  through 
the  town  to  another  temple,  banquets  were  held  and  all  was 
joy  and  merriment.  The  great  feature  of  the  festival  was 
the  succession  of  theatrical  performances  and  competitions 

* “ Mythology  and  Monuments,”  J.  E.  H.,  Div.  C,  Sect.  xii. 

II 


146 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


in  song  and  music,  which  lasted  for  several  days.  The 
most  renowned  poets  of  Greece  produced  their  new  pieces 
at  the  Dionysia,  and  this  in  itself  was  an  honour,  even  if 
they  should  fail  to  gain  the  prize.  Thus  it  was  in  the 
service-  of  Dionysos  that  the  wonderful  masterpieces  of 
tragedy  and  comedy  came  into  being. 

There  were  several  festivals  of  a simpler  kind,  to  cele* 
brate  Dionysos  as  the  wine-god.  The  lesser  or  rural 
Dionysia,  which  seem  to  have  been  a common  feast  of  all 
lonians,  consisted  of  vintage  rejoicings,  and  were  held  in 
December,  wherever  the  vine  was  planted.  Processions, 
sacrifices  of  oxen,  and  merry  sports,  such  as  dancing  on  a 
blown-out  wine-skin  rubbed  with  oil,  were  the  order  of 
the  day. 

The  Lenaia,  or  feast  of  the  wine  lees,  was  associated 
with  the  Lenaion,  ^ the  oldest  sanctuary  of  the  god  in 
Athens,  the  site  of  which  is  as  yet  undiscovered.  At 
this  feast  all  the  people  revelled  in  the  sweet  must,  called 
ambrosia. 

Finally,  in  February,  just  at  the  transition  between  winter 
and  summer,  the  Athenians  held  the  great  feast  of  the 
Anthesteria.  On  the  first  day  the  casks  were  opened, 
and  the  new  wine  was  tasted  for  the  first  time.  On  the 
second  day  came  the  feast  of  pitchers,  with  processions, 
carousals,  intoxicating  music  and  wealth  of  spring  flowers. 
At  the  feast  of  pots,  on  the  third  day,  offerings  were 
brought  in  pots  to  the  spirits  of  the  departed. 

The  plants  most  sacred  to  Dionysos  were  the  vine  and 
the  ivy.  His  animals  are  the  bull,  the  panther  and  the 
lion,  the  goat  and  the  mule.  His  most  important  attribute 
is  the  thyrsos,  a long  staff  which  he  and  his  Mainads 


* “Mythology  and  Monuments,”  J.  E.  H.,  Div.  A,  Sect,  i.,  addendum. 


IV.] 


BACCHUS 


^ H7 


carry,  tipped  with  a fir  cone  and  decked  with  tendrils  of 
ivy  and  vine. 

The  figure  of  Dionysos  best  known  in  art  is  the  beautiful 
blooming  youth  with  long  curling  hair,  and  a soft  melan- 
choly expression.  His  only  clothing  is  the  nebris,  or  fawn- 
skin,  slung  round  his  shoulders,  and  a wreath  of  ivy  or  vine. 


Fig.  35.  Cylix  by  Hieron : Dance  of  Maenads  {Berlin  Museum). 


There  is  also  an  older,  bearded  Dionysos,  corresponding  to 
the  aspect  of  the  god  in  more  primitive  times,  and  possibly 
identical  with  the  Indian  Dionysos,  conqueror  of  Asia.  As 
such,  he  wears  a fillet,  and  a long  garment  down  to  his  feet. 

(Figs.  35.  36.) 

Bacchus  or  Liber  of  the  Romans  is  essentially  the  same 


148 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


as  the  Greek  Dionysos.  At  the  Liberalia,  in  March,  he 
was  invoked  as  protector  of  plantations  and  vineyards,  and 
worshipped  with  simple  rural  rites.  In  later  times  the 
Bacchanalia  degenerated  into  such  licence,  that  the 
authorities  were  forced  to  keep  order  by  severe  threats. 

4.  The  Attendants  of  Dionysos.* 

(a)  Nymphs, 

The  imagination  of  the  ancients  peopled  all  the  fields, 
mountains,  valleys,  thickets,  woods  and  streams  with  super- 
human beings.  These  were  feminine  divinities  called 
Nymphs,  They  were  neither  divine  nor  human,  but  a link 
between  gods  and  men,  loved  and  honoured  alike  by  both. 
They  could  make  themselves  invisible  at  pleasure,  fed  on 
ambrosia,  like  the  happy  dwellers  on  Olympos,  but  were 
not  immortal.  The  Nymphs  were  often  invited  to  Olym- 
pian assemblies,  but  they  were  at  home  in  lonely  caves  and 
quiet  valleys,  where  they  span  and  wove,  danced  and  played, 
or  sang  sweet  songs,  where  they  hunted  with  Artemis,  revelled 
with  Dionysos,  sported  with  Apollo  and  Hermes,  or  quar- 
relled with  the  rude  mischievous  Satyrs,  with  whom  they 
were  always  at  feud. 

There  are  many  old  legends  about  the  doings  of  the 
Nymphs,  and  they  form  the  subject  of  many  a poem.  They 
were  worshipped  in  all  their  own  haunts,  by  stream,  fountain 
and  tree,  but  especially  in  caves  and  grottoes,  where  water 
dripped  and  rocks  took  strange  mysterious  shapes.  Some- 
times they  admitted  mortals  to  a share  of  their  pleasures,  or 
watched  over  the  fate  of  their  favourites.  In  later  times 
separate  sanctuaries  were  made  for  them,  not  only  in  lonely 
rural  districts,  but  even  in  towns.  These  buildings,  which 


* W*  Mannhardt,  “ Wald-und  Feldkult^.' 


IV.] 


NYMPHS 


149 


were  often  very  imposing,  and  were  used  for  marriage  cere- 
monies, were  called  Nymphaia.  Here  were  offered  to  the 
goddesses  goats,  lambs,  milk,  oil  and  even  wine. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  here  all  the  legends 


Fig.  36.  Indian  Bacchos  (^Falicau,  Rome). 


about  the  origin  of  the  Nymphs.  A great  number  of  them 
were  said  to  be  children  of  Zeus  and  Themis.  The  poets 
give  them  countless  names,  but  we  may  distinguish  two 
principal  classes. 


EARTH-CODS 


[chap. 


156 

1.  The  Naiads  are  goddesses  of  the  watery  element,  children 
of  Zeus  and  Themis,  living  in  fountains  and  brooks  ; they 
are  very  like  the  daughters  of  Okeanos,  only  distinguished 
from  them  by  their  parentage,  and  by  being  mortal. 

2.  The  Dryads  and  Hamadryads^  protecting  divinities  of 
the  trees  and  groves,  and  the  Oreads,  nymphs  of  rock  and 
mountain,  all  appear  as  swift  huntresses  in  the  retinue 
of  Artemis,  and  guard  the  flocks  and  herds  as  they  roam 
through  the  woods.  They  have  a standing  feud  with  Pan 
and  the  Satyrs,  who  chase  and  tease  them. 

The  lively  fancy  of  the  Greeks  imagined  many  a union 
between  nymphs  and  gods  or  men.  Echo  pined  away  for 
love  of  Narkissos,  until  there  was  nothing  left  of  her  but  a 
voice.  Eurydike,  mourned  by  all  her  sisters,  snatched 
from  her  husband  by  an  early  death,  was  one  of  the 
Nymphs. 

(3)  Seilenos  {Sile720s). 

The  worship  of  Seilenos^  as  an  essential  part  of  the 
Dionysos  cult,  came  from  Asia  Minor,  especially  from  Lydia 
and  Phrygia,  where  the  worship  of  Rhea-Kybele  was  at 
home.  Here  he  appears  as  the  spirit  of  springs  and  rivers, 
of  damp  meadows  and  rich  gardens.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  pipe,  the  syrinx  and  the  double  flute  used  in  the 
service  of  Kybele  and  Dionysos,  and  he  knew  many  a secret 
art  hidden  from  man. 

On  Greek  soil  he  first  appears  as  the  eldest  of  the  Satyrs 
(and  indeed  all  old  Satyrs  are  called  Silens).  Then  he 
becomes  the  overseer  and  master  of  the  unruly  Satyr  rabble. 
Together  with  the  Nymphs  he  was  the  nurse  and  tutor  of 
the  youthful  Bacchus,  and  often  appears  as  one  of  his  atten- 
dants. (Fig.  37.) 

Seilenos  understood  all  the  processes  of  vintage,  and  his 


IV.] 


SEILENOS 


I5i 


love  for  wine  sometimes  carried  him  to  such  excess  that  he 
had  to  be  held  on  his  ass  by  the  Satyrs,  lest  he  should  fall. 
He  is  often  represented  holding  a bunch  of  grapes,  a drink- 
ing-cup or  a wine-skin  in  his  hand,  or  he  is  drunk  and 
supported  by  two  Satyrs.  His  appearance  is  that  of  a short. 


Fig.  37.  Silenus  and  Bacchus  ^ Vatican,  Rome), 

squat,  bearded  and  bald-headed  old  man.  The  ass  on  which 
Seilenos  rides  is  described  as  a crafty  beast  who,  when  its 
master,  as  shield-bearer  and  esquire  of  Dionysos,  took  part  in 
the  war  of  the  giants,  raised  its  voice,  and  so  frightened 
the  giants  that  they  took  to  flight. 


152 


EARTH^GODS 


[chap. 


Of  the  legends  about  Seilenos  current  among  the  Greeks, 
we  may  mention  two — the  tale,  of  Marsyas  and  the  tale  of 
Midas,  Marsyas  was  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  double 
flutes,  which  Athene  tried,  but  threw  away  in  disgust  when 
she  found  that  they  distorted  her  face.  The  Silen  found 
them,  picked  them  up,  and  became  such  a skilful  player 
that  he  even  ventured  to  compete  with  Apollo.  King  Midas 
of  Phrygia  was  the  umpire,  but  when  he  gave  the  prize 
to  Marsyas,  the  god  punished  him  by  making  ass’s  ears 
grow  on  his  head,  and  gave  command  that  Marsyas  should 
be  put  to  a cruel  death  for  his  presumption. 

Midas  was  the  son  and  favourite  of  Kybele,  and  had  rich 
possessions.  He  tried  long  in  vain  to  get  Seilenos  into  his 
power.  At  last  he  mixed  wine  in  a fountain,  made  Seilenos 
drunk  and  learned  from  him  to  prophec}^  the  future,  and 
penetrate  into  secrets  of  Nature  hidden  from  ordinary  men. 
Another  legend  says  that  Midas  became  the  more  avaricious 
the  richer  he  grew.  Once  on  a time  old  Seilenos,  having 
lost  his  way,  came  to  Midas’  gate.  Midas  received  him 
hospitably,  entertained  him  with  his  best  for  three  days  and 
sent  him  back  to  Dionysos.  For  this  kindness  he  was 
allowed  to  choose  a reward,  and  in  his  blind  covetousness, 
Midas  wished  that  everything  he  touched  might  turn  into 
gold.  He  soon  had  cause  to  regret  his  folly.  What  had 
seemed  to  him  so  desirable  turned  out  his  bane,  for  not  only 
stones  and  twigs,  but  meat  and  drink  turned  into  hard  gold 
at  his  touch.  Dionysos,  at  his  earnest  prayer,  showed  him  a 
cure.  He  must  bathe  in  the  river  Pactolus.  He  did  so,  and 
the  fiver  to  this  day  washes  down  gold  produced  by  his 
touch. 

(c)  The  Satyrs, 

The  Satyrs  played  a chief  part  in  the  careless,  lawless, 
mischievous  troop  which  attended  Dionysos.  They  were 


IV.] 


FAN  AND  THE  SATYRS 


153 

sensual  half-savage  creatures,  and  therefore  are  represented 
shaped  in  part  like  beasts.  Their  ape-like  face  was  sur- 
rounded by  bristling  hair,  from  which  rose  little  horns  and 
pointed  ears,  and  they  had  goats’  tails.  They  used  to  dance 
and  jump  to  the  music  of  flutes,  castanets,  drums  and  bag- 
pipes. Satyrs  were  feared  because  they  made  raids  on  the 
flocks,  and  frightened  women  and  children,  nor  were  the 
Nymphs  secure  from  their  pursuit. 

Satyrs  were  at  home  among  hills  and  forests.  There, 
while  undisturbed  and  un watched,  they  amused  themselves 
with  hunting,  music,  dancing,  drinking  and  ingathering  of 
the  grapes.  They  and  the  wild  revelling  Mainads  were  the 
faithful  attendants  of  Bacchos  in  his  travels. 

Later  art  gave  the  Satyrs  a more  beautiful  and  human 
form.  A statue  by  Praxiteles  was  much  praised  on  this 
account  by  the  ancients,  and  most  of  the  representations 
which  remain  show  the  Satyrs  as  slender  youths  showing 
mere  indications  of  the  lower  form,  such  as  ears  and  tail,  and 
usually  wearing  a nebris  on  the  breast. 

{d)  Pan.^ 

“ Universal  Pan 

Knit  with  the  Graces  and  the  Hours  in  dance.”* 

Pan  is  simply  the  goat-herd  god  of  the  cattle-rearing 
tribes  of  Greece.  He  was  worshipped,  especially  in  Arkadia, 
as  protector  of  shepherds,  their  flocks  and  the  pastures  on 
which  they  grazed,  and  he  also  superintended  hunting  and 
fishing.  Sometimes  he  is  a son  of  Zeus,  sometimes  of 
Hermes  and  a nymph.  As  god  of  the  green  fields  he  is 
found  in  association  with  Dionysos,  as  mountain-god,  with 
Kybele.  As  lover  of  dancing  and  sport,  he  blows  on  the 

* Immerwahr,  “Mythen  und  Kulte  Arkadiens.” 

® Milton,  “ Paradise  Lost,”  iv.  266. 


154 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


shepherd^s  reed,  called  after  him,  “ Pan’s  pipe.”  Story 
said  that  Syrinx^  a coy  nymph,  fleeing  from  Pan’s  pursuit, 
was  changed  into  a reed,  that  Pan  cut  this  reed  and  made  it 
into  a sweet-toned  shepherd’s  flute,  and  that  in  the  evening, 
after  the  merry  hunt,  or  when  he  was  weary  with  driving 
the  flocks  to  pasture,  he  would  play  tunes  on  it  as  he  rested 
in  his  cave. 

As  god  of  primitive  herdsmen  Pan  led  a wandering  un- 
settled life.  He  roved  through  woods  and  fields,  or  rested 
and  played  his  pipe  in  shady  hollows  and  on  cool  river- 
banks.  Hence  mountains  and  caves  were  specially  sacred  to 
him.  As  mountain  spirit  the  god  made  his  presence  known 
by  the  uneasy  feeling  of  loneliness  and  desolation  which  lays 
mysterious  hold  of  a traveller  in  mountainous  regions,  when 
storms  howl  round  him  and  he  is  far  from  the  sound  of  a 
human  voice.  This  strange,  awesome  terror,  without  definite 
cause,  the  Greeks  called  Panic  fear.” 

In  Athens  a special  grotto  on  the  Acropolis  was  conse- 
crated to  Pan  and  called  by  his  name  ; yearly  sacrifices 
were  made  and  torches  burnt  in  honour  of  the  god,  and  in 
grateful  remembrance  of  the  panic  fears  which  had  scattered 
the  Persian  armies  at  Marathon  and  Salamis. 

Pan  was  usually  represented  as  a bearded  man  with  a 
distorted  countenance,  hairy  body  and  goat’s  horns  and 
ears,  holding  in  his  hand  a seven-stopped  shepherd’s  pipe 
(syrinx),  or  a crooked  shepherd’s  staff. 

[e)  Priapos. 

Priapos^  the  special  protector  of  fields  and  gardens,  was 
supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Dionysos  and  Aphrodite.  Fertility 
in  plants  and  animals  was  ascribed  to  his  power,  his  hand 
protected  herds,  bee-hives  and  fishing-nets.  The  first  fruits 
of  the  field  and  libations  of  wine  and  honey  were  offered  to 


IV.J 


PRIAPOS  AND  FAUNUS 


155 


him.  His  statues  represent  him  as  a man  of  ripe  age, 
holding  a pruning-knife,  and  carrying  fruits  in  his  tunic. 

5.  Roman  Wood  and  Field  Gods. 

The  inhabitants  of  Italy  were  originally  simple  shepherds 
and  husbandmen.  It  was  therefore  quite  natural  that  they 
should,  like  the  Greeks,  imagine  their  fields  and  woods 
peopled  by  a great  number  of  divine  and  semi-divine 
beings,  on  whose  fostering  care  all  things  depended  for 
fertility  and  health.  In  early  times  these  divinities  kept 
their  primitive  characteristics,  but  they  afierwards  became 
confused  with  Greek  gods  whose  legends  were  brought  to 
Italy  and  became  popular  there. 

(a)  FauniLS  (Fatuus), 

This  divinity  has  often  been  mistaken  for  the  Greek  Pan, 
but  there  are  important  differences  between  them.  Fauniis 
was  a benevolent  daemon,  living  in  woods  and  clefts  of  the 
rock,  knowing  the  future,  and  granting  offspring  to  men  and 
beasts  ; his  worship  was  zealously  carried  on.  The  Fau~ 
nalia  was  a rural  festival  held  in  December.  The  Luper- 
calia  were  celebrated  every  year  on  the  15th  of  February  as 
an  expiation  for  the  whole  city  ; a goat  was  sacrificed  in  the 
cave  called  Lupercal  where  the  wolf  had  suckled  Rorhulus 
and  Remus  ; the  brotherhood  of  the  Luperct^  having  put 
on  the  skins  of  the  slaughtered  beasts,  ran  through  the  city 
performing  many  strange  ceremonies.^ 

Weird  mysterious  fears  were  ascribed  to  the  agency  of 
Faunus.  His  sudden  cry  at  night  would  terrify  the  lonely 
wanderer  in  the  wood,  and  evil  dreams  were  his  ambassadors. 
His  name  as  god  of  dreams  is  Fatims  or  Incubus. 

" Mannhardt,  “ Mythologische  Forschungen.” 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


156 

The  oracles  of  Faunus  were  to  be  found  in  shady  groves, 
where  the  god  revealed  his  will  to  his  worshippers  in  dreams. 

Fauna  (Fatua)  Maia^  and  Bo7ta  Dea^  are  female  divinities 
of  fertility.  Maia  gives  her  name  to  the  month  of  May, 
the  freshest  of  the  year.  The  cult  of  Bona  Dea,  while  in 
rural  districts  it  retained  its  old  simple  character,  became 
the  occasion,  in  Rome,  of  unseemly  licence.  Fauna  corre- 
sponds in  character  to  Faunus.  All  these  goddesses  were 
skilled  in  magic  and  the  healing  art,  and  were  worshipped 
with  rites  to  which  only  women  were  admitted. 


(I))  Picus^  Picumnus  and  Ptlumniis. 

Picus^  the  woodpecker,  Mars’  sacred  bird,  was,  according 
to  many  legends,  the  son  and  successor  of  Saturn,  husband 
of  the  nymph  Kauko,  and  father  of  Faunus.  His  name  is 
explained  by  a myth  which  relates  that  Circe  loved  the 
youth  for  his  beauty,  and  changed  him  into  a woodpecker 
because  he  refused  her  love.  Picus,  like  Faunus,  is  a god  of 
husbandmen  and  herdsmen,  who  lives  in  the  forest  and  near 
streams,  and  has  the  gift  of  prophecy.  The  Augurs,  who 
foreboded  the  future  by  observing  various  signs,  especially  the 
flight  of  birds,  used  to  worship  him  as  a personification  of 
the  prophetic  power. 

Picumnus  and  Pilum^ms  are  a pair  of  brother-gods  who 
preside  over  marriage.  When  a child  was  born,  a couch 
was  prepared  in  the  house  for  Picumnus,  for  he,  as  god  of 
agriculture^  could  ensure  health  and  wealth.  Pilumnus,  with 
his  club  (pilum),  the  instrument  with  which  he  threshed 
the  corn,  warded  off  all  evil  influence  from  the  new-born 
babe.  These  two  brothers  had  done  many  doughty  deeds 
in  peace  and  war,  and  were  often  compared  with  the  Dioscuri, 
Castor  and  Pollux. 


IV.] 


SILVANUS  AND  TERMINUS 


157 


(d)  Stlvanus. 

Silvanus^  too,  was  god  of  herdsman.  His  functions  corre- 
spond in  the  main  to  those  of  Faunus,  but,  as  his  name 
shows,  he  took  woods  and  plantations  under  his  special  pro- 
tection. He  inhabited  forests,  fields,  boundary  lands  and 
river-banks,  and  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  to  erect 
boundary-stones  between  the  lands  of  neighbouring  owners, 
thus  introducing  order  into  rural  affairs.  In  three  different 
aspects  Silvanus  ruled  over  house,  field  and  wood,  and  being 
friendly  to  rustics  he  was  worshipped  in  every  hamlet.  He 
is  represented  in  human  form  as  a cheerful  old  man,  holding 
a shepherd’s  pipe,  like  sylvan  divinities,  and  provided  with  a 
young  tree-stem,  his  forest  emblem. 

{e)  Terminus, 

Terminus  protects  private  property  by  means  of  bound- 
aries. The  setting-up  of  a boundary-stone  was  accompanied 
by  rites  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa  ; this 
boundary-mark  was  sacred,  and  any  one  who  removed  or 
defaced  it  was  severely  punished.  The  strict  inviolability  of 
boundaries  in  Rome  is  shown  by  the  fable,  that  Terminus 
would  not  give  way  even  to  Jupiter  when  his  great  temple 
was  to  be  built  on  the  Capitol.  Therefore  the  sanctuary  of 
Jupiter  was  built  round  the  stone  of  Terminus. 

The  festival  of  the  Terminalia,  held  in  February,  was 
intended  to  recall  to  the  minds  of  the  peasants  the  sanctity 
of  landmarks.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  god,  and  the 
stones,  which  bore  his  image,  were  decked  with  wreaths  of 
flowers  and  anointed  with  oil.  The  festival  ended  in  a 
cheerful  gathering  of  neighbours  for  feast  and  song. 

(y)  Pales, 

Pales  was  worshipped  by  all  the  Italians  as  a divinity 


158 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap. 


presiding  over  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  was  supposed  by 
some  to  be  male,  by  others,  female.  Every  year  on  the  21st 
of  April,  the  legendary  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the 
city,  his  festival,  the  Palilia,  was  celebrated  with  offerings 
of  milk  and  wine.  Heaps  of  straw  and  hay  were  set  on  fire 
for  the  rite  of  purification,  while  to  the  sound  of  pipes  and 
cymbals  every  beast  in  the  flock,  and  lastly  the  shepherd 
himself,  must  jump  through  the  flames.  In  later  times  the 
Palilia  w^ere  merged  in  the  feast  of  the  foundation  of  the  city. 

(g)  Saturnus  and  Ops. 

The  Romans  honoured  Saturn  as  protector  of  corn-fields 
a-iid  of  the  harvest.  He  was  the  founder  of  systematic  agri- 
culture, gave  men  a settled  life  and  taught  them  civilized 
habits.  Saturn  was  thought  of  as  a legendary  king  of  the 
Golden  Age.  Banished  from  Greece,  he  had  sailed  in 
his  own  ship  as  far  as  Mount  Janiculus,  had  been  kindly 
received  by  King  Janus,  and  taking  up  his  abode  on  the 
Tiber-bank,  had  become  king  of  the  peasants  and  shepherds 
there,  and  long  held  beneficent  sway  over  them. 

As  an  ever-recurring  reminder  of  these  peaceful  times,  the 
Saturnalia  were  celebrated  every  year  during  several  days 
of  December.  All  classes  of  the  population  took  part,  the 
law  courts  had  a holiday,  friends  and  relations  gave  presents 
to  each  other,  and  even  slaves  might  forget  their  condition 
on  this  one  day,  for  they  put  on  free-men's  clothes,  sat  at  table 
with  their  masters  and  were  even  served  by  them.  Every- 
where was  merry-making,  and  the  more  well-to-do  citizens 
kept  open  house.  It  was  unlucky  to  begin  any  undertaking 
during  the  Saturnalia,  it  was  a time  devoted  entirely  to 
mirth  and  enjoyment. 

The  oldest  sanctuary  of  Saturn  stood  at  the  foot  of  the 
Capitol.  The  ancient  images  of  the  god  were  bound  with 


IV.] 


SATURNUS  AND  OPS 


159 


fetters,  and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  god  was  thus 
bound  to  the  city  and  could  not  remove  his  gifts  and 
favours  from  it.  The  state-treasure  was  kept  in  a vault 


Fig.  38.  Flora  [Naples). 


under  the  temple,  and  Saturn,  as  giver  of  wealth,  watched 
over  it.  His  attribute  is  the  sickle. 

Ops  was  the  wife  of  Saturn  and  was  worshipped  with  him. 
She,  too,  gave  wealth  and  tended  young  children.  In  later 
times  her  significance  as  goddess  of  the  fruitful  earth  fell  into 


i6o 


EARTH-GODS 


[chap.  IVc 


the  background  ; she  was  then  worshipped  chiefly  with  her 
son  Jupiter,  and  was  thought  to  exercise  a far-reaching 
influence  on  human  fate. 

(h)  Vertumnus  and  Pomona, 

Vertumnus^  as  his  name  shows,  {Vertere^  to  turn),  is  the 
god  of  vicissitude  in  nature, 'shown  in  the  succession  of  bud, 
blossom  and  fruit.  He  was  a young  and  beautiful  gardener- 
god,  husband  of  Pomona^  who  is  represented  as  a woman  in 
rustic  clothing,  with  a pruning-knife  in  her  hand.  She 
refused  all  suitors,  and  even  the  fair  Vertumnus  wooed  her 
long  in  vain.  In  order  to  persuade  her,  he  presented  him- 
self to  her  in  various  forms,  as  a hunter,  a fisher,  a vintager, 
a warrior  and  last  as  an  old  woman.  Being  unsuccessful, 
he  returned  to  his  own  shape  and  won  her  by  his  beauty. 
A special  priest,  the  Flamen  Pomonalzs^  was  set  apart  for 
the  service  of  Vertumnus  and  Pomona. 

(z)  Flora. 

Flora^  the  beautiful  goddess  of  flowers,  was  devoutly 
worshipped  by  the  Romans.  (Fig.  38.)  The  beginning  of 
her  cultus  and  the  institution  of  the  Flamen  Floralis^  were 
ascribed  to  Numa.  After  the  first  Punic  war  the  Romans 
introduced  the  Floralia,  games  which  were  celebrated  with 
the  greatest  freedom  and  mirth  during  Imperial  times,  from 
the  28th  of  April  to  the  5th  of  May.  Those  who  took  part 
in  the  festival  assembled  in  the  Circus  crowned  with 
flowers,  mimic  dances  w^ere  performed  and  hares  and  goats 
were  chased. 

Medztrzna,,  goddess  of  medicine,  may  here  be  mentioned. 
In  October  the  Meditrinalia  were  celebrated  atRome  in  her 
honour.  New  wine  was  drunk  and  poured  in  libation  to  the 
goddess,  as  the  health-giver. 


t 


CHAPTER  V. 

DIVINITIES  OF  THE  UNDERWORLD. 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 


Pausanias. 

Homer. 

Vergil. 

Harrison,  J.  E. 
Rohde,  Erwin. 
Hartwig. 


Book  X.  25-27. 

Odyssey,  xi. 

Aen,  vii. 

Myths  of  the  Odyssey. 
Psyche. 

Darstellungen  der  Unterwelt. 


I.  Plouton  and  his  Kingdom. 

We  have  spoken  of  Demeter  as  the  goddess  of  the  seed- 
corn  which  is  laid  in  the  dark  lap  of  earth,  and  we  have  told 
how  her  daughter  Persephone  led  a double  life,  above  and 
below.  We  have  thus  come  to  the  entrance  of  the  under- 
world. The  divinities  we  have  now  to  study  rule  over  the 
realm  of  darkness. 

Plouton  (Aides,  A’idoneus,  Hades)  vras  a son  of  Kronos  and 
brother  of  Zeus  and  Poseidon.  He  was  enthroned  by 
Persephone’s  side  and  ruled  over  the  dead.  After  the 
offerings  to  the  dead  and  due  burial  rites  were  over,  the 
souls  of  the  departed  came  to  the  kingdom  of  Pluto  in  the 
form  of  little  winged  beings.  They  were  led  thither  by 
Hermes  Psychopompos,  or  for  the  fee  of  an  obol,  which  was 

12 


161 


i62  divinities  of  THE  UNDERWORLD  [chap 

laid  in  the  grave  with  every  dead  man,  the  churlish  boat- 
man Charon  would  ferry  them  over  the  streams  which 
flowed  between  the  upper  and  the  underworld,  the  Acheron, 
Pyriphlegethon,  Kokytos  and  Styx.  Far  in  the  West,  in 
eternal  darkness,  surrounded  by  poplars  and  willows,  stood 
the  vast  mysterious  palace  of  the  god,  and  over  the  barren 
fields  around  it  flitted  the  spirits  of  the  departed.  Woe  to 
him  behind  whom  the  gates  of  Hades  had  once  closed  ! 
Open  to  all,  they  allowed  no  return,  for  Kerberos^  a gigantic 
dog  with  many  heads,  kept  guard.  The  souls  there  passed 
a wretched  phantom  existence,  continuing  the  occupa- 
tions which  they  had  carried  on  in  the  upper  world,  but 
as  in  a dream  and  without  clear  consciousness.  They  all 
longed  to  return  to  the  light  and  warmth  they  had  been 
forced  to  leave.  So  the  shade  of  Achilles  says,  in  the 
Odyssey,  that  it  is  better  to  live  on  the  earth  as  a poor  day- 
labourer  than  to  rule  as  a prince  among  the  dead.^  From 
time  to  time  the  shades  of  the  dead  might  appear  to  their 
friends  in  the  upper  world,  or  could  be  conjured  up  by 
sacrifices.  When  they  had  partaken  of  the  blood  of  the 
slaughtered  animal,  they  received  consciousness  and  speech 
for  a short  time,  as  Homer  relates  in  the  Odyssey  (Bk.  xi). 
Only  a very  few  heroes  succeeded  in  returning  altogether 
to  the  upper  world.  Herakles,  led  by  Hermes,  took  away 
Kerberos,  and  so  great  was  the  might  of  Orpheus’  song, 
that  Persephone  could  not  resist  him,  and  gave  him  back 
his  wife.  Even  in  later  times  Persephone  was  supposed  to 
yield  to  the  influence  of  music. 

— *•  when  Sicilian  shepherds  lost  a mate, 

Some  good  survivor  with  his  flute  would  go, 

Piping  a ditty  sad  for  Bion’s  fate ; 

And  cross  the  unpermitted  ferry’s  flow. 

And  relax  Pluto’s  brow. 


* Od.,  xi.  481. 


V.] 


JUDGES  OF  THE  DEAD 


163 


And  make  leap  up  with  joy  the  beauteous  head 
Of  Proserpine,  among  whose  crowned  hair 
Are  flowers  first  opened  on  Sicilian  air, 

And  flute  his  friend,  like  Orpheus,  from  the  dead.  ” * 

By  means  of  the  oracles  of  the  dead,  called  Nekromanteia, 
it  was  thought  possible  to  conjure  up  departed  spirits  and 
gain  from  them  knowledge  of  the  future. 

Beside  Aides,  the  supreme  judge  of  the  dead,  were 
enthroned  other  judges,  Minos^  Rhadamanthos^  Aiakos  and 
Triptolemos^  all  of  them  kings  who  by  their  god-fearing  and 
pious  lives  had  shown  themselves  worthy  of  this  honour. 
The  dead  who  appeared  before  them  to  hear  their  doom  were 
sent,  some  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest  in  the  Ocean,  there  to 
lead  a life  of  bliss  under  the  peaceful  rule  of.  Kronos,  some 
to  hover  in  ghostly  unsubstantial  form  round  the  palace  of 
Hades,  and  some  to  the  place  of  torment  in  the  depths  of 
Tartaros,  to  do  penance  as  criminals.  There  were  many 
legends  among  the  Greeks  about  the  punishments  of  the 
underworld.  TztyoSj  who  had  attempted  to  offer  violence  to 
Leto,  was  punished  by  being  stretched  defenceless  on  the 
ground,  while  two  vultures  gnawed  at  his  liver.  Tantalos,^ 
grown  arrogant  through  prosperity,  placed  the  flesh  of  his 
own  son  before  the  immortals,  when  they  were  his  guests, 
in  order  to  test  their  omniscience.  For  this  impiety  he  was 
punished  with  eternal  hunger  and  thirst.  Over  his  head 
hung  the  fairest  fruits,  but  as  soon  as  he  stretched  his 
hand  to  pluck  them,  a gust  of  wind  carried  the  branch  into 
the  air.  Up  to  his  breast  he  stood  in  cool  water,  but  as 
soon  as  he  bent  down  to  quench  his  burning  thirst  the 
water  slipped  away.  Sisyphos^  a powerful  king  in  Corinth, 
had  committed  many  crimes  against  the  gods,  and  had  even 

* M.  Arnold. 

^ E.  Thraemer,  “ Pergamos  ” (Pelops,  p.  33). 


164 


DIVINITIES  OF  THE  UNDERWORLD  [chap. 


dared  to  measure  his  strength  with  theirs.  He  was  con- 
demned to  roll  a heavy  stone  up  the  slope  of  a mountain, 
and  always  just  as  he  reached  the  top,  the  stone  slipped  from 
his  hands  and  rolled  down  again  into  the  valley.  Ixton  ^ 
was  bound  hand  and  foot  to  a wheel  which  turned  ceaselessly 
with  the  speed  of  the  wind,  and  the  Danaides^  for  the  crime 
of  the  murder  of  their  husbands,  were  condemned  to  draw 
water  in  sieves. 

In  this  comfortless  joyless  realm  Aides  ruled  as  king. 
The  Greeks  looked  on  death  with  aversion,  and  did  not 
willingly  let  their  thoughts  dwell  on  the  existence  of  the 
tomb.  Hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  offerings  were 
rarely  brought  to  Aides,  and  that  there  are  few  myths 
or  legends  connected  with  his  name.  He  was  thought  of  as 
a fierce  robber,  coming  in  his  chariot  with  black  horses  and 
snatching  men  unawares,  or  as  a wild  hunter  ranging 
through  the  world,  or  as  a shepherd  who  tended  the  flocks 
of  ghosts  in  the  misty  fields  of  the  underworld.  He  had  a 
helmet  or  cap  which  made  him  invisible,  and  was  an  emblem 
of  death  who  makes  invisible.  The  Cyklops  had  given  it  to 
him  as  he  gave  Zeus  the  thunderbolt  and  Poseidon  the  trident. 

As  the  kingdom  of  Aides  was  commonly  believed  to  be 
separated  from  the  upper  world  only  by  a thin  layer  of  earth, 
it  was  natural  that  deep  clefts  and  dark  ravines  with  water- 
falls and  gloomy  pools  should  suggest  the  idea  of  a connec- 
tion with  the  underworld.  In  many  places  in  Greece, 
especially  volcanic  districts  where  there  were  earthquakes, 
hot  springs  or  poisonous  vapours,  such  openings  were  shown, 
and  were  supposed  to  lead  to  Aides’  realm.  The  district  of 
Lake  Avernus,  near  Cumae,  in  Italy,  was  a place  of  this  kind. 

Another  very  widespread  myth  placed  the  land  of  the 
departed  far  in  the  West — in  a region  where  there  is  no  sun. 


* W.  Mannhardt,  “ Wald-und  P'eldkulte. ’’ 


V.] 


ISLANDS  OF  THE  BLEST 


165 

moon  or  stars.  In  the  river  Okeanos,  which  flows  round 
the  whole  world,  lay  the  Islands  of  the  Blest,  where  deified 
heroes  led  a life  free  from  care  and  sorrow.  This  was  the 
lot  of  Menelaus,  as  it  was  foretold  him  by  the  ancient  man 
of  the  sea  : “ But  thou  Menelaus,  son  of  Zeus,  art  not 
ordained  to  die  and  meet  thy  fate  in  Argos,  the  pasture- 
land  of  horses,  but  the  deathless  gods  will  convey  thee  to 
the  Elysian  plain  and  the  world’s  end,  where  is  Rhada- 
manthus  of  the  fair  hair,  where  life  is  easiest  for  men.  No 
snow  is  there,  nor  yet  great  storm,  nor  any  rain  ; but  always 
ocean  sendeth  forth  the  breeze  of  the  shrill  West  to  blow 
cool  on  men  : yea,  for  thou  hast  Helen  to  wife,  and  thereby 
they  deem  thee  to  be  son  of  Zeus  ” (Od.,  iv.  560,  Trans. 
Butcher  and  Lang). 

Aides  was  not  only  the  god  of  death,  but  the  giver  of 
fertility — the  god  who  makes  the  seed-corn  bring  forth  its 
fruit,  after  it  has  lain  the  due  time  in  the  dark  earth.  The 
mineral  treasures  of  the  mine  were  supposed  to  be  his  gift  to 
men,  and  in  this  aspect  he  was  called  Plouton,  the  wealthy 
one.  Plouton  is  frequently  represented  in  art.  His  face  is 
gloomy  and  severe,  and  his  head  is  covered  with  long, 
tangled*  locks  ; he  bears  the  sceptre  as  king  of  the  under- 
world, a horn  of  plenty,  to  signify  his  wealth,  or  in  later 
art,  a key,  to  show  his  power  over  the  gates  of  death. 

The  Romans  called  the  supreme  pair  of  underworld 
divinities  Hades  or  Dis,  and  Proserpina.  They  correspond 
to  Aides  and  Persephone  of  the  Greeks.  There  were  no 
separate  temples  to  Dis  Pater,  but  shrines  were  dedicated 
to  him  in  the  temples  of  other  gods.  On  the  Campus 
Martius  stood,  from  ancient  times,  an  altar  to  the  under- 
world gods.  It  was  buried  in  the  earth,  was  only  uncovered 
on  the  occasion  of  a sacrifice,  and  was  again  covered  with 
earth  immediately  afterwards. 


1 66  DIVINITIES  OE  THE  UNDERWORLD  [chap. 

The  Secular  Games,  instituted  to  take  place  once  every 
hundred  years,  but  in  later  times  celebrated  at  shorter 
intervals,  were  in  honour  of  Dis  Pater  and  his  queen,  and 
of  the  spirits  of  the  departed. 

2.  Persephone  (Proserpina). 

Persephone  or  Kore^  daughter  of  Demeter,  had  a double 
aspect  in  the  popular  faith  of  Greece.  As  consort  of  the 
underworld  ruler,  she  is  the  dark  goddess,  enemy  of  life,  who 
dwells  expectant  in  the  underworld. 

“ She  waits  for  each  and  other, 

She  waits  for  all  men  born  ; 

Forgets  the  earth  her  mother, 

The  life  of  fruits  and  corn  ; 

And  spring  and  seed  and  swallow 
Take  wing  for  her  and  follow 
Where  summer  song  rings  hollow 
And  flowers  are  put  to  scorn.”* 

But  in  summer,  when  Persephone  returns  to  her  mother, 
she  is  a goddess  of  growth  and  increase.  The  story  of  Perse- 
phone symbolizes  the  life  of  the  seed-corn,  sleeping  in  the 
earth  in  winter,  and  ripening  to  fruit  in  summer.  *It  also 
figures  the  career  of  man,  who  has  his  spring  of  life  and 
vigour,  and  his  winter  of  decay  and  death. 

The  Eleusinian  mysteries  emphasized  this  consoling  aspect 
of  death.  As  Persephone  was  not  bound  for  ever  to  the 
world  of  shadows,  the  worshippers  were  encouraged  to  hope 
for  a continued  existence  of  the  soul  after  death. 

In  her  double  capacity  Persephone  shares  the  honours 
both  of  her  mother.  Demeter,  and  of  her  husband.  Aides. 
She  was  represented  as  a beautiful  veiled  maiden,  to  show 
her  mysterious  character,  or  as  a queen,  crowned,  and 


* A.  C.  Swinburne. 


V.]  PERSEPHONE  AND  THE  ERINYES 


167 


throned  by  Aides’  side,  holding  in  her  hand  a narcissus  or 
a pomegranate. 

The  Roman  poets  sing  of  Proserpina,  but  she  had  little 
hold  on  popular  faith.  The  native  goddess  of  the  shades 
was  Lihitina  or  Luhentina^  whose  worship  was  closely 
connected  with  death  and  funeral  rites. 

3.  Other  Divinities  of  the  Underworld. 

(a)  Erinyes  {Euries)l 

The  Ermyes  were  believed  to  be  daughters  of  Night,  or  of 
Earth  and  Darkness,  or  of  Kronos  and  Eurynome.  They 
were  avenging  goddesses — servants  of  Hades  and  Per- 
sephone— who  lived  at  the  entrance  to  the  underworld, 
and  were  set  apart  to  punish  and  torment  the  departed 
spirits  of  those  who  had  done  evil  on  earth,  and  had  come  to 
the  kingdom  of  shades  without  having  appeased  the  gods. 
At  the  behest  of  the  gods  they  often  rose  to  the  upper 
world.  In  the  form  and  dress  of  huntresses,  with  snakes 
hanging  from  their  hair  and  their  girdles,  and  torches  in 
their  hands,  they  ceaselessly  and  tirelessly  pursued  fugitive 
evil-doers.  No  one  could  escape  them,  for  they  heard  and 
saw  everything.  The  Erinyes  were  the  inexorable  rep- 
resentatives of  divine  law,  and  avenged  every  impiety 
towards  father  or  mother,  every  dereliction  of  duty  and 
good  faith,  and  especially  every  false  oath.  At  the  same 
time  they  were  a refuge  and  protection  for  the  good.  In 
Athens  they  were  called  Semnai  (the  venerable  ones),  and 
in  Sikyon  Eumenides  (the  kindly  ones),  as  an  indication  of 
their  beneficial  influence  on  human  culture  and  morals. 

The  Greeks  regarded  the  Erinyes  with  great  awe  and 


{iEschylus,  “ Eumenides.” 

“ Myths  of  the  Odyssey,”  J.  E.  H.,  p.  93. 


i68 


DIVIJSIITIES  OF  THE  UNDERWORLD  [cha^. 


veneration,  and  woi shipped  them  in  dark  groves  as  god- 
desses of  the  underworld.  The  double  aspect  of  these 
goddesses,  destructive  and  beneficent,  was  brought  before 
the  mind  of  the  people  by  the  works  of  the  tragic  poets. 
The  legend  of  Orestes  presents  the  Erinyes  in  their  punish- 
ing and  avenging  functions. 

In  ea^y  times  the  Erinyes  were  of  no  definite  number  ; 
later,  names  are  given  to  three  of  them,  Tisiphone  (avenger 
of  murder),  Alekto  (the  tireless  in  pursuit),  and  Megaira 
(the  terrible  one).  Originally  they  were  conceived  of  as 
hideous  female  shapes,  of  repulsive  countenance,  clothed  in 
black,  sometimes  winged,  with  snakes  instead  of  hair,  and 
holding  snake^  daggers,  scourges  or  torches  in  their  hands. 
In  later  times,  and  especially  in  Athens,  this  horrible  con- 
ception was  abandoned,  and  they  were  represented  as 
beautiful  maidens,^dressed  like  Artemis  in  the  short  hunting 
chiton.  Their  snake-like  hair  and  grave  aspect  alone 
recalled  their  earlier  and  more  terrible  form. 

There  were  other  divine  or  half-divine  beings  who 
symbolized  the  mysterious  terrors  of  death  and  darkness, 
but  were  not  themselves  objects  of  worship. 

{p)  The  Graiai, 

The  Graiai  were  three  daughters  of  the  sea-god  Phorkys 
and  Keto.  Their  names  were  Deino^  Pephredo^  Enyo 
(Fright,  Shuddering  and  Horror).  They  were  the  elder 
sisters  and  nurses  of  the  Gorgons,  mis-shapen  hags,  grey 
and  ugly  from  their  birth,  who  lived  in  a dark  cave  in  the 
West,  not  far  removed  from  the  entrance  to  Hades,  and 
possessed  only  one  eye  and  one  tooth  between  them.  When 
Perseus  went  in  search  of  the  Gorgons,  he  came  first  to  the 
Graiai ; he  seized  their  eye,  and  only  gave  it  back  when 
they  had  told  him  the  way  to  the  dwelling  of  the  Gorgons. 


vO 


THE  GORGONS 


169 


(^7)  Qorgons. 

These,  like  the  Graiai,  were  daughters  of  Phorkys  and 
Keto,  and  were  call^  Stheno^  Etiryale  and  Medusa,  Like 
their  sisters,  they  lived  on  the  confines  of  light  ancf  darkness, 
in  eternal  twilight.  In  the  later  representations  of  art  and 
poetry,  the  three  Gorgons  are  frightful  apparitidhs,  half 


Fig.  39.  Medusa  ( Villa  Ludovisi,  Rome), 


animal,  half  human.  Two  of  them  were  immortal,  but 
Medusa,  the  youngest  and  most  beautiful,  was  mortal. 
Poseidon  loved  her,  and  wooed  her  in  the  very  temple 
of  Athene.  The  goddess,  being  enraged  at  the  desecra- 
tion of  her  temple,  punished  Medusa  by  changing  her 
hair  into  snakes,  and  by  making  her  more  deadly  and 
terrible  than  her  sisters.  At  last  Perseus,  under  the 


176 


DIVINITIES  01  THE  UNDERWORLD  [chap. 


protection  and  by  the  command  of  Athene,  ventured  to 
approach  her  as  she  slept,  and  struck  off  her  head. 

Perseus  gave  the  head  of  Medusa,^  whose  look  turned 
every  one  into  stone,  to  his  patron  goddess,  Athene.  She  set 
it  in  the  front  of  her  aegis,  to  be  a terror  to  her  enemies,  the 
boldest  of  whom  dared  not  face  the  Gorgon’s  head.  (Fig.  39.) 

Medusa  was  the  mother  of  the  mighty  giant  Chrysaor 
and  of  the  winged  horse  Pegasos^  both  of  whom  sprang 
from  her  headless  trunk  at  the  moment  of  her  death. 

[d)  Hypnos  and  Thanatos  {Somnos  and  Mors). 
Hypnos  was  the  god  of  sleep,  son  of  Night  and  twin- 
brother  of  Thanatos,  Death.  He  was  ruler  of  gods  and 
men,  and  lived  with  his  mother  and  brother  in  deep 
subterranean  darkness  at  the  entrance  of  the  under- 
world. He  was  a kind  divinity,  for  he  brought  rest  to 
the  weary  and  relief  to  the  suffering.  He  is  represented 
in  different  ways — nude,  dressed  in  a single  garment,  or 
richly  robed,  standing,  walking  rapidly,  or  languidly  re- 
clining, as  winged  youth,  child,  or  bearded  man.  He  is 
the  favourite  of  the  Muses,  because  he  sends  dreams  to  man 
The  Romans  called  him  Somnus. 

Thanatos^^  the  Mors  of  the  Romans,  god  of  death,  was 
a son  of  Night  and  brother  of.  Sleep,  not  kindly  and 
beneficent,  but  inexorable  and  severe,  a horror  to  gods  and 
men.  He  is  sometimes  called  a son  of  Earth  and  Tartaros  : 
no  doubt  because,  through  death,  men  come  into  close 
connection  with  the  earth  and  the  underworld. 3 

Although  the  ancients  looked  on  Death  as  a hard  and 
cruel  god,  they  did  not  represent  him  in  the  repulsive  form 
of  a skeleton,  as  modern  artists  do,  but  in  varying  shapes, 

* A.  Voigt,  “ Beitrage  zur  Mythologie  des  Ares  und  der  Athene.” 

“ C.  Robert,  “ Thanatos.” 

3 Homer,  Iliad,  xvi.  667  (Sarpedon). 


V.] 


HYP  NOS  AND  THANATOS 


171 


according  to  the  spirit  of  the  time.  In  the  most  ancient 
art  of  Greece  he  and  his  brother  are  babes  carried  in  the 
arms  of  Night,  Hypnos  being  coloured  white,  and  Thanatos 
black.  After  this  we  find  him  in  the  form  of  a tall,  power- 


Fig.  40.  Genius  of  Death. 


ful  man  of  wild  and  fierce  aspect,  with  two  great  wings 
on  his  shoulders,  a quieter  form  of  Boreas,  the  boisterous 
storm-wind  of  winter.  But  there  are  other  better  known 
representations.  In  these  he  appears  as  a winged  youth  of 


172 


DIVINITIES  OF  THE  UNDERWORLD  [chap. 


gentle,  melancholy  aspect,  his  feet  crossed,  and  an  inverted 
torch  in  his  hand  ; or  he  leans  against  a tree  trunk  in 
an  attitude  of  repose,  with  his  arms  behind  his  head. 
(Fig.  40.) 

This  attractive  aspect  of  Death,  which  took  the  place  of 
the  repulsive  one,  probably  symbolizes  the  gentle  departure 


Fig.  41.  Amphora  : “ Underworld  ” {Munich), 


of  the  spirit  to  Elysium.  Apollo  and  Artemis,  as  has  been 
already  shown,  share  some  of  the  functions  of  the  death- 
god.  (Fig.  41.) 

(^)  Oneiros  and  Morpheus, 

Oneiros  was  the  dream-god.  His  name  is  also  found  in 
the  plural  ; and  dreams  are  distinguished  as  true  and  false. 
The  false  dreams  issued  from  the  ivory  gate,  and  the  true 
dreams  from  the  horn  gate  of  the  palace,  west  of  Okeanos, 


V.] 


ONEIROS  AND  MORPHEUS 


173 


where  they  dwelt.  They  were  called  children  of  Nyx 
(night),  and  also  sons  of  Sleep.  They  stood  at  the  command 
of  the  superior  gods,  and  were  sent  hither  and  thither  at 
their  pleasure.  Morpheus  was  supposed  by  some  to  be  a 
kind  of  guardian  or  ruler  of  dreams,  as  Aiolos  was  lord  of 
the  winds,  but  his  name  also  occurs,  meaning  an  actual 
dream-god  who  creates  images  in  sleep.  Other  dfeam-gods 
are  Ikelos^  the  bringer  of  illusions  ; Phohetor^  the  terrifier  ; 
and  Phantasos^  the  divinity  of  confused  and  complicated 
visions.  (Fig.  42.) 


Fig.  42.  Head  of  Aphrodite  from  Melos  {Paris,  Louvre), 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES. 

No  nation  possesses  authentic  records  of  its  earliest  begin- 
nings, and  yet  all  peoples  have  some  theory  of  how  they  came 
to  be.  Where  history  fails,  imagination  steps  in,  fills  up 
at  pleasure  the  gaps  in  oral  tradition,  and  forms  a fabric  of 
mingled  fact  and  fancy  which  the  popular  mind  easily 
absorbs,  and  which  even  the  scientific  investigator  can 
scarcely  hope  to  separate  into  its  component  parts. 

A nation  which  prides  itself  on  its  greatness  will  naturally 
not  ascribe  its  origin  to  blind  chance,  but  will  seek  for 
a source  as  exalted  as  possible,  and  finally  claim  divine 
ancestry.  The  humbler  sort  of  the  people,  however,  will 
not  consider  themselves  direct  descendants  of  the  god,  but  will 
reserve  that  honour  for  the  princes  and  nobles  who  rule  and 
judge  them,  whose  deeds  their  annals  relate,  and  who  seem 
to  be  formed  of  a different  clay  from  themselves.  A mythical 
genealogy  will  connect  these  nobles  with  the  local  god,  and 
make  each  the  offspring  of  a union  between  the  god  or  god- 
dess and  a son  or  daughter  of  the  land. 

These  half-divine,  half-human  ancestors  of  princely 
houses,  who  form  an  intermediate  stage  between  the 
nation  and  its  god  are  called  Heroes  or  Demigods,  The 

174 


VI. 


WORSHIP  OF  HEROES 


175 


myths  which  relate  their  lives  and  doings  are  partly  re- 
miniscence of  primitive  battles,  calamities,  migrations  and 
colonizations,  and  partly  pure  poetic  invention  and  story- 
telling. 

An  imaginative  and  inventive  people  loves  to  glorify  its 
early  history  by  the  relation  of  miraculous  events,  to  mul- 
tiply the  exploits  of  its  heroes,  to  adorn  fact  with  fiction 
and  to  give  poetic  form  and  colour  to  the  whole.  This  is 
exemplified  in  the  most  striking  manner  in  the  case  of  the 
Greeks.  Their  hero  mythology  is  an  inexhaustible  store- 
house of  the  most  beautiful,  wonderful  and  touchingly 
human  tales. 

To  their  divine  parentage  the  heroes  owed  the  might, 
beauty,  courage  and  wisdom  which  they  possessed  in  so  high 
a degree,  but  the  human  side  of  their  origin  prevented  them 
from  sharing  the  immortality  of  the  gods.  They  were  sub- 
ject to  death,  and  numbers  of  them  were  laid  low  in  the  great 
Trojan  and  Theban  wars.  In  the  earliest  times  the  condition 
of  heroes  after  death  was  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  of 
other  mortals,  they  became  insubstantial  shades  in  Hades, 
and  only  a very  few  favourites  of  the  gods  found  their  way 
to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest.  In  later  times,  however,  it  was 
believed  that  dead  heroes  had  all  gone  to  the  Islands  of  the 
Blest,  and  were  living  there  in  an  eternal  Golden  Age,  under 
the  rule  of  Kronos,  or  that  they  still  walked  the  earth  in- 
visible, as  guardians  of  later  generations,  appearing  from  time 
to  time  to  give  aid  at  critical  moments.  When  this  later  belief 
became  common,  the  cultus  of  heroes  was  instituted.  Prayers 
and  sacrifices  were  offered  to  them  in  order  to  gain  their 
favour  and  protection.  Heroes  were  not  so  highly  honoured 
as  the  gods  ; they  had  neither  special  priests  nor,  as  a rule, 
organized  festivals,  but  at  stated  times  sacrifices  were 
offered  to  them  on  their  altars  or  at  their  tombs.  The 


176 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


more  distinguished  had  temples  built  for  their  worship, 
and  some,  like  Herakles,  were  made  gods  after  death  and 
received  full  divine  honours.  There  was  distinction  of 
rank  even  among  heroes,  for  some  were  nearer  to  the  gods, 
others  to  men. 

Hero  mythology  falls  naturally  into  three  divisions  : 

I.  The  ancient  world,  the  creation  of  man,  and  the 
earliest  events  affecting  the  human  race  ; the  period  when 
Prometheus  formed  the  first  men  out  of  clay,  when  great  con- 
vulsions of  nature,  such  as  the  Ogygian  and  Inachian  floods, 
destroyed  all  the  earliest  race  of  man  except  a few  survivors, 
the  period  in  which  the  separate  tribes,  under  their  own 
ancestral  rulers,  began  to  choose  settled  abodes  and  to  lead 
an  independent  life. 

II.  The  period  of  the  older  heroes,  of  Herakles  and 
Theseus,  Minos,  Pelops,  Perseus  and  Bellerophon,  the  time 
of  the  great  expeditions  and  campaigns  undertaken  by  a 
number  banded  together,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  hunt  of 
the  Kalydonian  Boar,  and  the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts  to 
Kolchis. 

III.  The  period  of  historic  tradition,  enlarged  and  adorned 
with  legend  ; the  time  of  the  younger  heroes,  sons  and 
descendants  of  the  older  demigods,  but  more  human  than 
they,  the  time  of  the  expedition  against  Thebes  and  the 
great  Trojan  war. 

I.  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD  AND  THE  EARLIEST  AGE.' 

Japetos,  one  of  the  Titans,  sons  of  Kronos,  was  fated  to 
become  the  ancestor  of  the  human  race.  He  took  to  wife 
the  Okeanid  Kl^ene^  who  bore  him  four  sons,  Menoitos^ 
Atlas^  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus.  Atlas  became  bearer 
of  the  pillars  on  which  the  brazen  vault  of  Heaven  rests. 


* .Eschylus,  “ Prometheus  Bound. 


PROMETHEUS 


177 


VVI.] 


Prometheus  and  Epimetheus  (Forethought  and  After- 
thought) are  closely  connected  with  the  traditions  about 
man. 

Prometheus  fashioned  the  first  men  out  of  clay,  and 
Athene  breathed  a living  soul  into  them.  These  first  men 
led  a savage,  uncultured  life.  The  germ  of  all  mental 
faculties  and  gifts  lay  dormant  in  them,  but  one  thing  was 
lacking  to  their  development.  Without  fire,  to  burn  on  the 
hearth,  they  could  neither  cook  their  food  nor  exercise  use- 
ful arts.  Now  Zeus  had  no  goodwill  to  the  creatures  of 
Prometheus.  He  foresaw  that  if  they  once  became  possessed 
of  fire,  they  would  no  longer  be  so  immediately  dependent  on 
the  will  of  the  gods  and  the  gifts  of  Nature,  but  would  be 
carried  away  by  their  arrogance  to  impiety  and  crime.  He 
therefore  refused  them  the  gift,  but  Prometheus,  full  of  love 
for  his  creatures,  would  not  stop  half-way,  but  would  make 
them  complete  even  against  the  will  of  the  gods.  Creeping 
secretly  to  the  hearth  of  Zeus  he  stole  a spark  of  the 
heavenly  fire,  brought  it  down  to  earth  and  kindled  from 
it  the  first  fire  on  a human  hearth.  Others  relate  that 
Prometheus  took  a dry  twig  and  approached  the  chariot  of 
Helios  as  he  drove  past,  that  the  twig  caught  fire  and  that 
Prometheus  lighted  his  torch  with  it. 

Zeus  could  not  recall  the  gift  once  taken,  but  Prometheus 
had  to  pay  dearly  for  his  bold  defiance.  He  was  fettered  to 
Mount  Caucasus  by  Hephaistos,  and  every  day  a ravenous 
eagle  came  and  devoured  his  liver,  which  always  grew  again. 
After  centuries  of  this  torment  had  passed,  Herakles  in  his 
wanderings  came  to  Mount  Caucasus.  He  pitied  Pro- 
metheus, whose  pride  had  long  been  tamed,  and  after 
shooting  the  eagle  he  freed  him  from  his  bonds.  At  the 
intercession  of  his  son  Herakles,  Zeus  agreed  that  Pro- 
metheus should  go  free,  but  he  must  always  wear  a ring,  in 

^3 


178 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


which  a piece  of  the  Caucasus  rock  was  set,  as  a symbol  of 
his  indissoluble  connection  with  the  mountain. 

As  soon  as  men  became  possessed  of  fire,  and  their 
material  condition  improved,  they  began  to  forget  the  gods. 
Then  Zeus  resolved  to  send  trouble  and  sorrow  to  them. 
And  it  was  by  means  of  a woman  that  trouble  came  into  the 
world. 

Hephaistos,  the  skilful  artificer,  by  command  of  Zeus 
fashioned  the  first  woman  out  of  clay.  The  story  is  told 
by  Hesiod. 

“ He  spoke,  and  they  did  the  will  of  Zeus,  son  of  Kronos,  the  Lord  ; 

For  straightway  the  halting  one,  the  famous,  at  his  word, 

Took  clay  and  moulded  an  image,  in  form  of  a maiden  fair. 

And  Athene  the  gray-eyed  goddess  girt  her  and  decked  her  hair, 

And  about  her  the  Graces  divine,  and  our  Lady  Persuasion  set 
Bracelets  of  gold  on  her  flesh  ; and  about  her,  others  yet, 

The  Hours,  with  their  beautiful  hair,  twined  wreaths  of  blossoms  of  spring, 
While  Pallas  Athene  still  ordered  her  decking  in  everything. 

Then  put  the  Argus-slayer,  the  marshal  of  souls  to  their  place. 

Tricks  and  flattering  words  in  her  bosom,  and  thievish  ways  ; 

He  wrought  by  the  will  of  Zeus,  the  Loud-thundering,  giving  her  voice, 
Spokesman  of  gods  that  he  is,  and  for  name  of  her  this  was  his  choice  ; 
Pandora,  because  in  Olympos  the  gods  joined  together  then, 

And  ALL  of  them  gave  her,  a gift,  a sorrow,  to  covetous  men.”  * 


The  gods  sent  Hermes  to  lead  her  to  Epimeiheus^  brother 
of  Prometheus.  Epimetheus  should  have  taken  care  not  to 
receive  a present  from  Zeus,  but,  rash  and  headstrong  as  he 
was,  he  took  the  lovely  maiden  to  his  home  and  made  her 
his  wife. 

As  her  dowry  from  the  gods  Pandora  had  brought  with 
her  a box,  tightly  closed,  and  had  told  Epimetheus  not  to 
open  it.  But  as  Epimetheus  was  very  curious  to  know  what 


See  “ Mythology  and  Monuments,  Athens,”  J.  E.  H. 
Hesiod,  “ Works  and  Days,”  69-82, 


VI.] 


THE  FOUR  GREEK  RACES 


179 


was  inside  he  lifted  the  lid.  Immediately  there  flew  out  of 
the  box  all  the  sorrows,  diseases  and  plagues  which  torment 
human  life,  and  when  Epimetheus,  frightened  at  his  rash  act, 
shut  down  the  lid  again,  nothing  remained  in  the  box  except 
Hope,  which  helps  men  to  bear  grief. 

The  human  race,  which  had  now  attained  to  some  degree 
of  civilization,  was  thus  exposed  to  a thousand  sorrows,  and 
in  spite  of  their  high-mindedness  and  arrogance,  men  became 
the  prey  of  death  and  disease.  For  centuries  they  grew  in 
skill  and  pride,  and  forgot  the  gods  more  and  more,  till  Zeus, 
angry  with  their  crimes,  determined  to  destroy  them  all.  A 
great  flood  covered  the  land,  and  every  living  thing  perished 
in  it.  In  different  local  legends  this  flood  is  called  by  different 
names.  In  Attica  and  Boeotia  it  is  called  the  Ogygian  flood, 
after  the  legendary  king  Ogyges  ; in  Argos,  the  Inachian, 
after  King  Inachiis  ; or  it  was  called  the  flood  of  Deukalion^ 
because  he  was  the  only  man  who  survived.  How  Deuka- 
lion,  son  of  Prometheus,  and  Pyrrha,  daughter  of  Epime 
theus,  became  the  parents  of  a new  human  race  has  already 
been  related. 

Deukalion  was  succeeded  in  the  rule  of  this  new  race  by 
his  son  Hellen^  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Hellenes.  He  had 
three  sons,  Azolos,  Doros^  and  Xuthos  ; and  Xuthos  had  two 
sons,  named  Ion  and  Ackaws.  The  posterity  of  Deukalion 
and  Hellen  divided  the  sovereignty  between  them,  and  the 
four  principal  Greek  races,  Dorians^  Aiolians^  lonians  and 
Achaians^  were  named  after  Doros,  Aiolos,  Ion  and  Achaios. 
These  races  occupied  the  country  of  Greece,  and  founded 
various  kingdoms.  As  legendary  rulers  of  these  kingdoms 
we  sometimes  find  descendants  of  the  old  race-kings,  some- 
times younger  heroes  and  sons  of  gods,  from  whom  the  actual 
later  princes  claimed  descent.  The  Dorian  Heraklidai,  foi 
instance,  claimed  descent  from  Herakles^  and  through  hiqj 
from  Zeus, 


i8o 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


II.  THE  AGE  OF  THE  EARLIER  HEROES. 

Most  of  the  hero-legends  of  this  age  belong  to  separate 
districts  and  tribes  of  Greece,  but  the  myth  of  Herakles  may 
be  called  Hellenic,  for  although  it  proceeds  from  a definite 
locality,  the  poets  have  made  it  the  common  property  of  the 
Greek  race  as  a whole.  We  have  also  to  consider  the  myths 
of  adventures  joined  in  by  bands  of  heroes,  such  as  the  expe- 
dition of  the  Argonauts  and  the  Hunt  of  the  Kalydonian 
boar. 

Local  Hero  Myths. 

I.  ARGOS.* 

At  the  head  of  the  race  of  heroes  stands  the  river-god 
Inachos^  whose  daughter,  or  grand-daughter,  was  the  beautiful 
To,  She  was  beloved  by  Zeus,  and  was  changed  into  a cow  in 
order  that  she  might  escape  the  persecution  of  Hera.  After 
lo’s  guardian,  the  hundred-eyed  Argos,  had  been  slain  by 
Hermes  Hera  sent  a huge  gad-fly  to  torment  the  cow,  and  to 
drive  her  through  the  whole  world  without  pause.  At  last 
lo  came  to  Egypt,  where  she  found  refuge,  took  her  human 
form  again  and  became  the  mother  of  Epaphos,  One  of  the 
children  of  Epaphos  was  the  maiden  Libya^  beloved  by  the 
sea-god  Poseidon,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Agenor 
and  Belos.  Belos  and  Anchinoe  are  the  parents  of  Aigyp- 
toSj  Danaos^  Kepheus  and  Phineiis,  Aigyptos  ruled  over 
the  land  which  bore  his  name,  but  Danaos  received  from  his 
father  the  dominion  over  Libya,  named  from  the  daughter  of 
Epaphos.  Danaos  had  several  wives*,  who  bore  him  fifty 
daughters,  the  Dandides,  Because  the  fifty  sons  of  Aigyptos 
ceaselessly  persecuted  Danaos^  daughters  with  their  suit, 
the  latter,  at  command  of  Athene,  built  the  first  ship  of  fifty 


* ^schylus,  “ Iketides  ” ^ “ Prometfieus  Vinctvi^,' 


VI.] 


THE  DANAIDES 


i8i 


oars,  and  escaped  with  his  daughters  over  the  sea  to  Argos, 
whence  his  race  had  in  earlier  times  been  expelled. 

At  that  time  Gelanor^  a descendant  of  a younger  son  of  Ina- 
chos,  was  ruling  in  Argos.  Danaos  demanded  the  sovereignty, 
was  elected  as  ruler  by  the  people,  and  their  choice  was  con- 
firmed by  an  omen  from  the  gods.  Thus  Danaos  became 
king  of  Argos.  He  was  highly  honoured  as  a benefactor,  for 
he  made  wells  so  deep  that  they  did  not  dry  up  in  the 
hottest  summer,  and  canals  to  irrigate  the  land  and  make  it 
fruitful. 

But  his  brother’s  sons,  the  fifty  Aigyptiadai,  followed  him 
across  the  sea  once  more,  and  Danaos,  although  he  mistrusted 
them  and  bore  them  a grudge,  dared  not  refuse  their 
demands,  so  he  consented  to  marry  his  daughters  to  them. 
Then,  giving  to  each  of  his  daughters  a sword,  he  commanded 
them  to  murder  their  husbands  in  secret  on  the  night  of  their 
marriage.  The  daughters  obeyed  the  cruel  command,  and 
were  condemned  for  this  crime  to  endless  penance  in  Hades. 
One  only,  Hypermnesij^a^  disobeyed,  and  spared  her  husband 
Lynkeus^  out  of  love  to  him.  Being  accused  by  her  father 
before  a court  of  justice  she  was  acquitted.  She  remained 
the  wife  of  Lynkeus,  and  became  by  him  mother  of  Abas, 
the  father  of  Akrisios  and  Proitos. 

In  spite  of  their  black  deed  of  murder,  the  other  Danaides 
were  again  sought  in  marriage  by  a number  of  noble  suitors, 
who  flocked  together  to  compete  for  them  in  the  Games 
which  Danaos  instituted.  From  these  marriages  sprang 
famous  races  of  heroes.  One  of  the  Danaides,  Amymone^ 
had  borne  to  Poseidon  two  sons,  Nauplios,  afterwards  father 
of  Palamedes,  and  Oiax,  both  of  them  well-known  heroes  of 
the  Trojan  war. 

To  return  to  Lynkeus  and  Hypermnestra.  Their  son  Abas 
married  the  Arkadian  nymph  Okaleia,  became  a doughty 


i§2  MYTHS  OF  HEROES  [chap. 

warrior,  and  founded  the  town  of  Abai  in  Phokis,  from  which 
the  brave  Abantes  colonized  Euboia.  The  two  sons  of  Abas, 
Akrisios  and  Proitos,  were  enemies  from  their  childhood. 
When  they  were  grown,  Akrisios  drove  Proitos  from  his 
home.  Proitos  fled  to  Lykia,  married  Stheneboia,  the  king^s 
daughter,  and,  with  the  aid  of  an  army  provided  by  his 
father-in-law,  reinstated  himself  in  his  native  land,  where  he 
built  the  city  of  Tiryns,  and  ruled  over  Argos  and  Corinth. 

Proitos  had  three  beautiful  daughters,  who  offended  the 
gods  by  their  arrogance  and  pride.  They  were  punished 
with  a terrible  disease  which  destroyed  their  reason,  and 
one  of  them  slew  herself  by  leaping  from  a high  rock.  The 
other  two  were  healed  by  the  famous  seer  and  physician 
Melampus^  from  Pylos,  whose  ears  snakes  had  licked  while 
he  was  asleep,  so  that  henceforth  he  could  understand  the 
flight  of  birds  and  interpret  their  speech.  Melampus  and  his 
brother  Bias  married  the  two  Proitides.  Their  children, 
Adrastos  and  Amphiaraos^  Kapaneiis  and  Eteokles^  became 
famous  heroes,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition  against  Thebes. 

When  Proitos  came  again  into  his  kingdom,  he  handed 
over  to  Akrisios  the  old  city  Argos  and  part  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  Akrisios  married  Eurydike^  daughter  of  Lake- 
daimon^  and  had  one  daughter,  Dana'e.  It  had  been 
prophesied  to  King  Akrisios  that  he  should  die  by  the  hand 
of  his  daughter's  son.  In  order  to  frustrate  the  fulfilment  of 
this  prediction,  he  forced  his  daughter  to  remain  unmarried, 
and  shut  her  up  in  a secure  underground  prison,  but  Zeus 
loved  the  unhappy  maiden,  and  in  the  form  of  a shower  of 
gold  he  penetrated  to  her  dungeon.  So  Danae  became  in 
secret  the  mother  of  Perseus. 

When  Akrisios  knew  that  his  daughter  had  borne  a son,  he 


{Apollodoros,  i.  9,  il. 
Odyssey,  xv.  225. 


VI.] 


PERSE 


i§3 

was  terrified,  and  determined  to  kill  both  Danae  and  her  babe. 
So  he  shut  them  both  up  in  a great  wooden  chest,  and  threw 
them  into  the  sea.  But  Zeus  would  not  let  his  son  perish. 
The  chest  drifted  on  the  waves,  and  was  stranded  on  the 
island  of  Seriphos,  where  the  fisherman  Di'ktys  drew  it  in 
with  his  net.  Diktys  brought  the  mother  and  child  to  his 
brother,  Polydektes^  king  of  the  island,  who  determined  to 
bring  Perseus  up  as  his  own  son  and  to  marry  Danae.  When 
his  suit  was  refused,  he  was  very  angry,  and  in  order  to  bend 
Danae  to  his  wishes  he  made  her  a slave,  and  caused  her  to 
be  cruelly  treated.  When  Perseus  grew  to  manhood,  Poly- 
dektes  wished  to  remove  him,  so  that  Danae  might  be  com- 
pletely in  his  power.  He  therefore  sent  him  to  the  Gorgons 
to  fetch  the  head  of  Medusa,  an  adventure  so  dangerous,  that 
he  supposed  Perseus  would  perish.  Perseus  was  provided 
with  an  invisible  cap,  the  gift  of  Aides,  and  with  winged 
sandals.  Led  by  Hermes  and  Athene,  he  went  first  to  the 
Graiai^  the  sisters  of  the  Gorgons,  and  by  taking  away  from 
them  their  single  eye,  he  forced  them  to  tell  him  the  way. 
Holding  in  his  hand  a bright  polished  shield,  in  which  he 
could  see  the  reflected  image  of  Medusa,  he  approached  her 
while  she  was  asleep  and  cut  off  her  head  with  a scimitar. 
Then  he  hastened  away,  and  as  he  wore  the  invisible  cap. 
Medusa’s  sisters  could  not  pursue  him.  When  he  had  re- 
turned in  safety  he  gave  the  head  of  Medusa  to  his  patroness, 
Athene,  who  fastened  the  dreadful  freezing  horror  on  her 
shield.  But  this  was  at  the  end  of  his  journey.  Before 
he  could  return  he  must  travel  through  many  lands,  and 
accomplish  many  brave  deeds.  When  King  Atlas  denied 
him  hospitality,  Perseus  held  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  up 
before  him,  and  turned  him  into  a rock.  In  Egypt  Perseus 
had  another  adventure.  Kassiopeia^  wife  of  King  Kepheus^ 
had  had  the  effrontery  to  compare  her  beauty  with  that  of 


184 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


the  Nereids.  The  enraged  sea  divinities  persuaded  Poseidon 
to  send  out  of  the  sea  a dreadful  monster  which  laid  waste 
the  coast  of  Kepheus’  kingdom,  and  killed  men  and  animals. 
The  king  went  in  despair  to  the  Oracle,  to  ask  how  the  angry 
gods  were  to  be  appeased,  and  received  as  answer  the  com- 
mand to  sacrifice  his  only  daughter  Andromeda  to  the 
monster.  The  unhappy  girl  was  fettered  to  a barren  rock  on 
the  shore  and  left  to  become  the  sea-beast’s  prey.  Just  as  the 
monster  approached  Perseus  came  flying  through  the  air  ; 
he  slew  the  beast  and  turned  it  to  stone,  freed  the  fair 
Andromeda,  and  married  her. 

Then  Perseus  went  back  to  Seriphos  and  rescued  his 
mother  Danae  from  the  shameful  slavery  in  which  Poly- 
dektes  had  kept  her.  Polydektes  himself  he  slew  with  all  his 
guests,  while  they  were  seated  at  a great  feast,  and  turned 
them  all  to  stone.  He  did  not  remain  long  in  Seriphos,  but 
returned  to  his  ancestral  home  of  Argos  with  his  mother 
Danae  and  his  wife  Andromeda.  Proitos,  brother  of  Akrisios, 
had  again  attempted  to  usurp  the  rule  of  Argos,  but  Perseus 
made  war  upon  him,  and  forced  him  to  yield  the  sovereignty 
to  the  rightful  king,  Akrisios.  Shortly  after  this,  as  Perseus 
was  throwing  the  quoit,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  slay 
Akrisios  by  misadventure,  and  thus  the  words  of  the  oracle 
were  fulfilled.  Perseus  succeeded  Akrisios  as  ruler  of  Tiryns, 
but  he  removed  his  royal  residence  to  Mycenae,  leaving  the 
lordship  over  Argos  to  Megapenthes^  son  of  Proitos.  After 
his  death  he  was  worshipped  as  a god  in  Seriphos,  Athens, 
and  especially  in  Argos.  Among  the  sons  whom  Andro- 
meda bore  to  him,  Elektryon  and  Alkaios  were  the  most 
famous.  Amphitryon^  son  of  Alkaios,  was  married  to  Aik- 
meney  daughter  of  Elektryon.  Herakles  was  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Alkmene. 


VI.J 


SiSYPHOS  AND  BELLEROPHON 


1^5 


2.  Corinth. 

At  the  time  of  Proitos  Corinth  was  under  the  rule  of 
Argos.  The  first  important  figure  whom  we  meet  there  is 
Stsyphos^  son  of  that  Aiolos  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken 
as  son  of  Hellen  and  ancestor  of  the  Aiolians.  Sisyphos  is  a 
notorious  criminal  and  traitor.  When  Zeus  carried  off 
Aigina,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Asopos,  Sisyphos  betrayed 
him.  Zeus  wished  to  slay  Sisyphos,  but  Sisyphos  refused  to 
follow  Thanatos,  the  death-god,  who  came  to  take  him  away, 
and  threw  him  into  a deep  dungeon.  For  a long  time  Hades’ 
kingdom  received  no  accessions,  but  at  last  Ares  freed  Thana- 
tos and  gave  Sisyphos  up  to  him  to  suffer  eternal  torment  in 
the  underworld  for  his  crime. 

Glaukos  * was  the  son  of  Sisyphos.  When  he  was  driving 
in  a chariot  race,  his  horses  took  fright  and  he  was  thrown, 
dragged  along  the  ground  and  dashed  to  pieces.  He  left  a 
son,  Bellerophon,®  who  went  to  the  court  of  Proitos  in  the 
bloom  of  his  youthful  beauty.  Stheneboia,  the  king’s  wife, 
fell  violently  in  love  with  him,  and  when  she  saw  that  her 
passion  was  not  requited,  she  slandered  him  to  her  husband, 
and  so  excited  his  rage  that  he  determined  on  Bellerophon’s 
death.  He  sent  the  youth  to  carry  a letter  to  lobates,  king 
of  Lykia,  his  own  father-in-law.  This  letter  contained  secret 
instructions  that  the  youth  was  to  be  slain.  Bellerophon 
went  to  Lykia  without  suspicion,  and  there  lobates  laid  such 
dangerous  tasks  on  him  that  he  might  easily  have  perished 
while  fulfilling  them.  But  the  gods  had  not  forgotten  him, 
and  sent  him  the  winged  horse  Pegasos,  whose  manege 
Athene  herself  taught  him.  Mounting  high  in  the  air,  he 
slew  the  Chimaira^  a dreadful  monster  with  three  heads,  of 


* Iliad,  vi.  154;  Apollodoros,  i.  9,  3. 
“ Homer,  Iliad,  vi.  155. 


Myths  of  heroes 


[chap. 


I §6 


a goat,  a lion  and  a snake,  which  could  run  like  the  wind, 
and  slew  all  whom  it  met  with  its  fiery  breath. 

Bellerophon  also  defeated  many  enemies  who  threatened 
the  kingdom  of  lobates.  Among  these  were  the  Amazons, 
a nation  of  women,  skilled  in  all  warlike  exercises  from  their 
youth,  and  able  to  hold  their  own  against  the  strongest  oppo- 
nents, even  against  Theseus  and  Herakles.  These  Amazons 
were  said  to  live  in  the  far  East,  many  stories  are  told  about 
them,  and  their  wars  with  heroes  are  represented  in  many 
works  of  art.  In  the  Trojan  war  they  were  led  by  their  queen, 
Penthesilea,  to  the  aid  of  the  besieged  against  the  Greeks. 

At  last  lobates  tried  to  entice  the  brave  Bellerophon  into 
an  ambush,  so  that  he  might  be  slain,  but  by  the  help  of  the 
gods  the  hero  escaped.  He  even  succeeded  in  winning  the 
love  and  trust  of  the  king  in  such  a high  degree,  that  he  gave 
him  his  daughter  to  wife  and  half  his  kingdom.  Bellero- 
phon lived  a long  and  happy  life  surrounded  by  his  blooming 
children.  Once  more  he  returned  to  Tiryns  to  revenge  him- 
self on  Stheneboia.  She  was  induced  to  mount  the  steed 
Pegasos,  to  flee,  as  she  supposed,  with  Bellerophon,  but  the 
hero  threw  her  into  the  sea,  where  she  perished. 

But  Bellerophon^s  great  good  luck  became  a curse  to  him. 
He  grew  so  haughty  that  he  even  conceived  the  impious  idea 
of  flying  on  his  steed  up  to  Olympos.  Roused  to  anger  by 
such  impiety,  Zeus  hurled  his  thunderbolt.  Bellerophon 
perished,  and  his  name  served  to  point  the  moral  of  fallen 
pride. 

3.  THEBES. 

Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  whose  foundation  is  ascribed  to 
Kadmos^  is  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 

/Sophocles,  “ QEdipus  Rex.’* * 

* *1  Euripides,  “ Phoenissae.” 
iMoschus,  I.  “Europa.” 


VI.] 


EUROPA 


187 


hero  myths.  Kadmos  was  son  of  the  Phoenician  king, 
Agenor,  who  was  a son  of  Poseidon  and  Libya.  His  beautiful 
sister,  Europa^  from  whom  our  continent  takes  its  name,  was 
a favourite  of  Zeus.  In  order  to  carry  off  the  maiden,  Zeus 
changed  himself  into  a lordly  bull  of  tawny  hue,  and  in  this 
form  approached  the  king’s  daughter  as  she  was  walking  in 
a flowery  meadow  near  the  sea.  Europa  was  pleased  with 
the  animal,  caressed  him,  and  when  he  lay  quietly  down  in 
the  grass  she  playfully  seated  herself  on  his  back.  Then 
the  bull  leaped  up,  rushed  into  the  sea,  and  swam  with  the 
maiden  to  Gortys,  in  the  island  of  Krete,  where  Zeus  took 
his  true  shape  again. 

Meantime,  there  was  grief  in  the  house  of  Agenor  at  the 
loss  of  the  princess,  and  Kadmos  was  sent  out  to  seek  her. 
After  a long  and  vain  search,  he  came  to  the  oracle  of 
Apollo  in  Delphi,  and  asked  where  he  should  find  his 
sister.  The  Oracle,  in  reply,  commanded  him  to  give  up  the 
search,  to  follow  the  first  cow  he  should  meet,  and  to  found 
a city  on  the  spot  where  she  should  lie  down.  This  city  was 
to  be  the  Kadmeia,  later  called  Thebes,  and  the  country  in 
which  it  was  built  was  called  Boeotia,  the  land  of  oxen. 

Kadmos  followed  the  cow,  and  she  guided  him  to  the 
fateful  spot,  but  he  had  many  adventures  before  he  could 
found  the  city. 

To  show  his  thankfulness  to  the  gods,  he  wished  to 
sacrifice  the  cow  who  had  been  his  guide,  and  sent  his 
companions  to  fetch  lustral  water  for  the  rite  at  a well 
sacred  to  Ares.  But  a terrible  dragon  who  guarded  the  well 
slew  them.  Kadmos  himself,  under  protection  of  Athene, 
attacked  and  conquered  the  dragon,  and  taking  the  teeth 
of  the  defeated  monster  he  sowed  them  in  the  earth.  From 
this  wondrous  seed  sprang  armed  men,  who  slew  each  other 
in  bloody  fight.  Only  five  escaped  the  slaughter,  and  they 


I 


8§  MYTHS  OF  HEROES  [cHA^. 

remained  true  to  Kadmos,  and  helped  him  in  building  his  city. 
They  were  called  Spartai^  “ the  sowed/^  and  from  them  the 
noblest  families  of  Thebes  traced  their  descent.  The  citadel 
of  the  town  retained  the  name  Kadmeia  till  very  late  times. 

Now  the  dragon  which  Kadmos  had  killed  was  the  sacred 
snake  of  Ares.  To  expiate  the  sacrilege  of  its  slaughter,  and 
to  appease  the  angry  god,  Kadmos  must  serve  him  full  eight 
years  ; at  the  end  of  that  time  Zeus  gave  him  to  wife 
Harmoma^  daughter  of  Ares  and  Aphrodite.  All  the  gods 
came  to  the  wedding,  bringing  rich  presents  for  the  bridal 
pair,  and  thus  showing  their  interest  in  the  city  of  Thebes. 
Harmonia  bore  to  Kadmos  one  son,  PolydoroSj  and  four 
daughters,  Autonoe^  Tno^  Semele  and  Agave,  Autonoe 
married  Aristaios^  and  their  son  was  Aktaion,  Because  he 
once  happened  to  surprise  Artemis  in  the  bath,  he  was 
changed  by  the  goddess  into  a stag  and  torn  to  pieces  by  his 
own  hounds.  Ino  was  married  to  Athamas,  who,  being 
seized  by  madness,  killed  his  eldest  son  and  pursued 
his  wife  till  she  sprang  from  a high  cliff  into  the  sea  in  order 
to  escape  from  him.  She  became  a sea-goddess,  and  was 
called  Leukothea.  Semele,  the  mother  of  Dionyos,  was  slain 
by  the  thunderbolt  of  Zeus.  By  Echion^  one  of  the  five 
Spartai,  Agave  became  the  mother  of  Pentheus^  King  of 
Thebes,  who  was  cruelly  slain  by  the  Mainads  because  he 
had  forbidden  the  worship  of  Dionysos.  The  rule  of  Thebes 
was  transferred  to  Lahdakos^  son  of  Polydoros. 

In  his  old  age,  Kadmos  was  forced  to  flee  to  Illyria  to 
escape  the  persecution  of  his  enemies.  After  a long  life  of 
great  prosperity,  alternated  with  heavy  griefs,  Kadmos  and 
his  faithful  wife  Harmonia  died.  He  was  worshipped  at 
Thebes  with  almost  divine  honours  as  inventor  of  agricul- 
ture, maker  of  the  first  canals  for  irrigation,  teacher  of  the 
art  of  writing  and  founder  of  the  city. 


VI.] 


KADMOS  AND  HARMONIA 


189 


“Far,  far  from  here, 

The  Adriatic  breaks  in  a warm  bay 
Among  the  green  Illyrian  hills,  and  there 
The  sunshine  in  the  happy  glens  is  fair. 

And  by  the  sea,  and  in  the  brakes. 

The  grass  is  cool,  the  sea-side  air 
Buoyant  and  fresh,  the  mountain  flowers 
More  virginal  and  sweet  than  ours. 

And  there,  they  say,  two  bright  and  aged  snakes. 

Who  once  were  Cadmus  and  Harmonia, 

Bask  in  the  glens  or  on  the  warm  sea-shore. 

In  breathless  quiet,  after  all  their  ills. 

Nor  do  they  see  their  country,  nor  the  place 
Where  the  Sphinx  lived  among  the  frowning  hills. 

Nor  the  unhappy  palace  of  their  race. 

Nor  Thebes,  nor  the  Ismenus,  any  more.”  ' 

At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Kadmos  and  the  flight  of 
Pentheus,  his  grandson,  Labdakos,  was  still  under  age : 
therefore  the  rule  of  Thebes  passed  to  Nykteus.  By  Thehe^ 
goddess  of  the  town,  Nykteus  had  a daughter,  Antiope^  whom 
Zeus  secretly  loved.  When  Nykteus  knew  this  he  wished 
to  kill  his  daughter,  but  she  fled  to  a lonely  wilderness  on 
Mount  Kithairon,  where  she  bore  twins,  and  afterwards  took 
refuge  with  King  Epopeiis  of  Sikyon,  leaving  her  little  sons, 
Amphion  and  Zethos^  with  a shepherd  who  was  keeping 
sheep  on  Mount  Kithairon,  and  who  brought  them  up  as 
peasants,  unknowing  of  their  parentage.  In  Sikyon  Antiope 
found  a refuge  only  for  a short  time.  Her  father,  Nykteus, 
persecuted  her  even  there,  and  after  his  death  his  brother 
Lykos,  who  succeeded  to  the  regency  of  Thebes  during  the 
minority  of  Labdakos,  took  Sikyon  and  brought  Antiope  back 
to  Thebes.  There  she  had  to  suffer  from  the  jealousy  of 
Dirke^  wife  of  Lykos,  who  tormented  her  in  every  way,  made 
her  a slave,  and  gave  her  the  most  menial  work  to  do.  For 


‘ M.  Arnold. 


190 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


many  years  Antiope  patiently  bore  her  hard  lot,  but,  finding  at 
last  that  Dirke  was  planning  to  take  her  life,  she  escaped, 
and  returned  to  Mount  Kithairon,  where  her  sons  received 
her  hospitably,  without,  however,  recognizing  her.  Soon 
after,  Dirke  came  to  Mount  Kithairon  to  be  present  at  a Bacchic 
festival,  and  seeing  her  former  slave,  she  resolved  to  put  her  to 
a cruel  death.  She  therefore  commanded  the  two  supposed 
shepherds,  Amphion  and  Zethos,  to  fetch  the  wildest  bull 
of  their  herd,  to  bind  Antiope  to  his  horns,  and  let  the  mad 
creature  drag  her  to  death.  The  youths  were  just  about  to 
bind  the  unhappy  woman,  when  the  old  shepherd  who  had 
brought  them  up  recognized  Antiope,  and  told  them  that 
she  was  their  mother.  Amphion  and  Zethos,  bitterly  en- 
raged against  Dirke  for  the  long  sufferings  she  had  inflicted 
on  Antiope,  and  for  her  intention  to  make  them  the 
murderers  of  their  own  mother,  seized  her,  bound  her  in 
Antiope’s  stead  to  the  bull  and  caused  her  to  be  dragged  to 
death.  When  she  died  she  was  turned  into  a spring,  which 
bore  her  name. 

The  two  brothers  now  entered  on  their  dominion  and 
built  a rampart  round  the  lower  town,  as  Kadmos  had  already 
done  round  the  citadel.  Amphion  married  Niobe,  daughter 
of  Tantalos,  of  whose  rivalry  with  the  gods  and  punish- 
ment we  have  already  told.  After  their  death,  Amphion 
and  Zethos  became  protecting  divinities  of  the  town,  and  the 
rule  passed  to  Labdakos.  No  important  event  is  connected 
with  his  reign,  but  the  legends  of  his  son  Lazos  and  his 
grandson  Oidzpous  \ CEdzpus)  are  very  famous. 

Lazos  married  lokaste^  daughter  of  Menoikeus,  who  bore 
a son  called  CEdzpiis.  Laios  having  heard  a prophecy  that 
he  should  die  by  the  hand  of  his  own  son,  cut  the  sinews  of 
the  child’s  ankles,  and  exposed  it  in  the  forest  of  Kithairon. 
The  boy  was  found  by  some  shepherds  and  brought  to  King 


VI.] 


OIDIPOUS 


191 

Polybos  of  Corinth,  whose  childless  wife  welcomed  him  and 
brought  him  up  as  her  own  son.  When  CEdipus  was  grown, 
he  inquired  of  the  Oracle  about  his  parents,  and  received  for 
answer  the  command  to  keep  away  from  his  native  land,  lest 
he  should  become  the  slayer  of  his  father  and  the  husband  of 
his  mother.  Now  OEdipus  thought  that  Polybos  was  hisfather. 
He  therefore  left  the  court  of  Corinth  and  travelled  to  a 
distance,  and  when  he  was  going  through  a hollow  way,  he  met 
his  real  father,  Laios.  Strife  arose  between  the  two  companies, 
and  when  Laios  interfered  he  was  slain  by  his  son.  CEdipus, 
not  knowing  what  a crime  he  had  committed,  journeyed  on  to 
Thebes.  There  he  found  terror  and  consternation,  for  the 
Sphinx^  a monster  half  woman,  half  lion,  was  devastating 
the  country.  She  gave  to  every  passer-by  a riddle,  and  if  he 
could  not  guess  it  she  slew  him.  This  was  the  riddle  : 
“ Four-legged  in  the  morning,  two-legged  at  mid-day,  three- 
legged  in  the  evening.”  OEdipus  went  to  meet  the  monster 
and  guessed  the  riddle  at  once,  on  which  the  Sphinx  threw 
herself  down  from  her  rock,  and  the  land  had  rest.  CEdipus 
received  from  the  Thebans  the  promised  reward — namely,  the 
hand  of  locaste,  widow  of  Laios,  and  the  rule  over  Thebes. 

Thus  OEdipus,  all  unknowing,  had  fulfilled  the  prophecy, 
and  after  murdering  his  father  had  become  the  husband  ot 
his  own  mother.  She  bore  him  four  children,  Eteokles^ 
Polyneikes^  Antigone  and  Ismene,  But  although  OEdipus 
had  transgressed  unwittingly,  the  anger  of  the  gods  followed 
him.  Misfortunes  befel  the  land,  and  when  the  Oracle  was 
asked  for  help,  the  whole  secret  was  revealed.  locaste  slew 
herself  in  remorse,  CEdipus  put  out  his  own  eyes  and  went 
into  exile,  followed  by  the  curses  of  his  subjects,  and  attended 
only  by  his  daughter  Antigone.  The  vengeance  of  the  gods 
was  not  yet  sated,  but  was  to  be  fulfilled  later  on  CEdipus’ 
two  sons,  Eteokles  and  Polyneikes,  who  succeeded  him  as 


192 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


rulers  of  Thebes  and  lived  in  continual  enmity  with  each 
other.  This  moving  tale  is  the  subject  of  many  poems. 
The  tragedies  of  ^schylus  and  Sophocles^  especially,  present 
thq  fates  of  the  house  of  Laios. 

4 THESSALY.* 

The  Centaur  Cheiion  is  a strange  figure  who  occurs  con- 
stantly in  heroic  myth  in  connection  with  famous  men.  He 
did  not  belong  to  the  race  which  fought  with  Peirithoos  and 
the  Lapithai.  He  was  the  most  righteous  of  all  the  Cen- 
taurs, and  was  considered  by  the  ancients  to  be  a famous 
physician,  seer,  astrologer  and  musician.  Cheiron  lived  in  a 
cave  on  Mount  Pelion,  and  Achilles,  Asklepios,  Herakles 
and  many  other  famous  Greeks  were  sent  to  him  to  be 
taught.  Peleus  was  his  friend  ; to  him  he  gave  his  terrible 
spear  made  of  ash  from  Mount  Pelion.  The  Argonauts  visited 
him  and  even  Orpheus  consented  to  compete  with  him  in 
music.  Chancing  to  be  present  at  a fight  between  Herakles 
and  the  Centaurs,  Cheiron  tried  to  make  peace,  and  was 
wounded  by  a poisoned  arrow.  The  wound  was  incurable, 
therefore  Cheiron  went  willingly  to  death,  in  order,  as  one 
legend  says,  to  free  Prometheus  from  his  sufferings.  After 
his  death  he  was  placed  in  the  heavens  as  a constellation, 
and  named  “ The  Archer.’*  (Fig.  43.) 

In  the  earliest  legends,  up  to  the  time  of  Homer,  the 
Centaurs  were  not  half  brutes.  They  were  only  known  as 
gigantic,  savage,  and  ferocious  men  inhabiting  the  Thessa- 
lian forests.  They  were  always  engaged  in  bloody  wars  with 
the  Lapiths,  and  thus  in  art  they  sometimes  symbolize  the 
struggle  of  Greek  civilization  with  the  remnants  of  primitive 
races,  and  the  final  absorption  or  conquest  of  the  latter. 


* W.  Mannhs'icft,  “ Wafd-uncf  Feldkultq”  (Alte  Peleis). 


VI.] 


THE  CENTAURS 


193 


According  to  the  myth,  Centaurs  and  Lapiths  lived  as 
peaceful  neighbours  till  the  war  began  at  the  wedding  of 


Fig.  43.  Centaur  \Capitol,  Rome). 


Peirithoos^  Theseus’  friend.  At  the  feast  the  wild  Centaur 
Eurytos  tried  to  carry  off  the  bride,  Hippodamia.  The 

t4 


194 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Lapiths  resisted  ; Theseus,  Nestor  and  the  giant  Kaineus 


Fig.  44.  Young  Centaur  {Capitol,  Rome). 

came  to  their  aid,  and  after  a desperate  fight  the  Centaurs 
were  completely  overthrown.  But  Kaineus,^  although  he 


VI.] 


KEKROPS 


195 


had  been  made  invulnerable  by  Poseidon,  was  slain,  for  the 
Centaurs  piled  tree-stumps  and  masses  of  rock  upon  him,  so 
that  he  was  suffocated. 

Two  types  of  the  Centaur  were  developed  by  art.  In 
one  he  is  represented  as  a man  with  the  hind-quarters  of  a 
horse  growing  on  to  his  back  ; ^ in  the  other  he  has  the 
horse  body  with  four  legs,  and  a human  trunk,  head  and 
arms.  (Fig.  44.) 

5.  ATTICA.2 

The  Attic  people,  like  the  Theban  Spartai,  believ^ed  that 
they  were  sprung  from  the  soil,  and  had  originally  been 
ruled  over  by  earth-born  kings.  There  was  a later  tradition 
about  a settlement  from  Egypt,  connected  with  the  name 
of  Kekrops,  He  was  said  to  have  been  received  hospitably 
in  Attica  by  King  Aktaios,  to  have  married  his  daughter, 
and  succeeded  him  as  ruler  of  Attica.  But  the  earlier 
story  made  Kekrops,  like  all  the  Attic  kings  before  him, 
a son  of  Ge,  the  Earth.  His  autochthonous,  earth-born 
nature  is  symbolized  in  art  by  his  serpent^s  tail,  in  which 
he  resembles  the  giants.  After  Kekrops  had  secured  the 
borders  of  Attica  against  the  raids  of  the  Boeotians,  he 
founded  the  Kekropeia,  or  citadel,  which  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  city  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Athene.  Kekrops  made 
great  advance  in  civilization  by  dividing  the  country  into 
twelve  townships,  and  introducing  civic  order.  He  was  also 
a religious  lawgiver,  erected  altars  to  Pallas  Athene,  and 
instituted  priests  and  sacrifices.  The  decision  of  the  contest 
between  Athene  and  Poseidon  was  ascribed  to  him. 


* Corinthian  Skyphos,  Paris;  published  in  “ Histoire  de  la  Ceramique 
Grecque  ” (Rayet  et  Collignon),  p.  55. 

^ j Euripides,  “Ion.” 

I Toepffer,  “ Attische  genealogie.” 


196 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


The  Kekropides,  daughters  of  Kekrops,  were  called  Herse^ 
Aglauros  and  Pandrosos.  Herse  bore  Keryx  to  Hermes, 
and  from  him  the  Attic  priestly  castle  of  Kerykes  (heralds) 
traced  its  origin.  Aglauros  and  Ares  were  the  parents  of 
Alkippe^  whom  Halirrothios,  son  of  Poseidon,  loved.  Halir- 
rothios  was  slain  by  Ares,  and  this  murder  was  said  to  be 
the  first  cause  tried  by  the  court  of  the  Areopagos.  The 
third  sister,  Pandrosos,  remained  unmarried,  and  became 
priestess  of  the  virgin  goddess,  Athene.  The  myth  of  how 
the  Kekropides  met  their  end  is  as  follows : Athene  had 
concealed  Erichthonios,  son  of  Hephaistos  and  Ge,  in  a chest, 
and  had  given  the  chest  to  the  Kekropides  with  strict 
orders  not  to  open  it.  Pandrosos  obeyed,  but  her  two  sisters, 
not  being  able  to  restrain  their  curiosity,  opened  the  chest. 
When  they  saw  the  child  in  the  form  of  a snake  they  were 
seized  with  madness,  and  threw  themselves  down  from  the 
Acropolis  rock.  The  faithful  sister,  Pandrosos,  was  made 
immortal,  and  became  a companion  of  Athene.^ 

When  Erichthonios  was  grown  he  became  king,  and 
founded  the  Panathenaic  festival.  He  had  a son,  Pmidion^ 
whose  children  were  Erechtheus^  Philomela  and  Prokne, 
Erechtheus  and  his  daughter  Chthonia  gave  up  their  lives 
in  a war  between  Attica  and  Eleusis,  after  which  Eleusis 
came  under  Attic  rule.  With  him  the  stock  of  Kekrops 
became  extinct,  and  the  rule  of  Attica  passed  to  Ion,  son 
of  Apollo,  who  had  been  the  Athenians^  ally  in  their  war 
against  Eumolpos  of  Eleusis.  Erechtheus  and  Erichthonios 
are  properly  one  and  the  same,  but  the  poets  of  a later  period 
separated  their  two  aspects  and  made  them  father  and  son. 

The  following  is  the  myth  of  the  sisters  of  Erechtheus. 
Tereus^  king  of  Thrace,  having  given  aid  to  Pandion  in 


* See  “Mythological  Studies,”  I.,  by  J.  E,  Harriso  in  the  pournal  of 
Hellenic  Studies^  October,  1891. 


VI.] 


PROKNE  AND  PHILOMELA 


197 


his  war  against  Labdakos  of  Thebes,  received  as  a reward 
the  hand  of  the  king^s  daughter,  Prokne,  Their  son  was 
Itys  or  Itylos,  Tereus  being  desirous  to  wed  Philomela 
also,  carried  her  off  on  the  pretext  that  her  sister  was  dead. 
When  Philomela  discovered  the  truth  and  threatened  to 
reveal  Tereus^s  crime,  he  cut  out  her  tongue  and  hid  her  in 
a thicket  in  Parnassos.  Prokne  knew  nothing  of  her  sister’s 
sufferings  or  concealment,  therefore  Philomela  embroidered 
on  a garment  the  story  of  her  wrongs  and  sent  the  web  to 
Prokne.  By  this  means  the  sisters  met,  and  they  made  a 
compact  to  take  vengeance  on  Tereus.  They  slew  Itys, 
and  placed  his  flesh  before  his  father  as  food  ; but  when 
Tereus,  having  discovered  the  deed,  was  about  to  slay  both 
sisters  with  an  axe,  all  three  were  changed  into  birds — Tereus 
into  the  hoopoe,  Prokne  into  the  swallow,  and  Philomela 
into  the  nightingale,  who  sings  to  her  sister  : — 

“ O swallow,  sister,  O rapid  swallow, 

I pray  thee  sing  not  a little  space. 

Are  not  the  roofs  and  the  lintels  wet  ? 

The  woven  web  that  was  plain  to  follow. 

The  small  slain  body,  the  flower-like  face. 

Can  I remember  if  thou  forget  ? ” ' 

The  other  daughters  of  Erechtheus  were  Oreithyia  and 
Prokris^  whose  stories  have  already  been  told. 

When  the  male  line  of  Kekrops  was  extinct,  and  when 
Pandion  //.,  a pretended  son  of  Erechtheus,  had  been 
banished  to  Megara,  Ion  became  king  of  Athens.  He  was 
son  of  KreousUj  daughter  of  Erechtheus^  and  of  Apollo.* *  As 
a new-born  infant  he  was  exposed,  and  disappeared,  no  one 
knew  whither.  His  mother,  Kreousa,  married  Xuthus^  and 

* A.  C.  Swinburne. 

* See  “ Ion  ” of  Euripides,  translated  and  edited  by  A.  W.  Verrall. 


198 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


as  they  had  no  children  they  went  to  the  Oracle  of  Delphi 
to  inquire  whether  they  were  to  have  offspring.  The  Oracle 
commanded  them  to  adopt  as  their  son  the  first  youth  they 
should  meet.  This  was  Ion,  the  young  temple-servant,  so 
Xuthus  obeyed  the  command  of  the  Oracle,  and  took  Ion  as 
his  son.  One  version  of  the  legend  calls  Ion  the  real  son  of 
Xuthus.  When  Xuthus  died  he  left  his  kingdom  to  Ion, 
and  his  other  son  by  Kreousa,  Achaios,  became  the  ancestor 
of  the  Achaians. 

According  to  another  legend  Pandion  was  driven  out  of 
Athens  by  the  sons  of  Metion^  and  took  refuge  with  King 
Pylos  in  Megara,  where  he  adopted  Atgeus  as  his  son.  After 
the  death  of  Pandion,  Aigeus  and  his  brothers,  Pallas^  Nzsos 
and  LykoSj  marched  to  Attica,  drove  out  the  sons  of  Metion, 
and  divided  the  kingdom  among  themselves. 

6.  Crete. 

After  Zeus,  in  the  form  of  a tawny  bull,  had  carried  off 
Europa,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  King  Agenor,  and  had 
brought  her  to  Crete,  she  became  the  mother  of  three 
famous  sons,  Mmos,  Rhadamaztthos  and  Sarpedon,  Rhada- 
manthos  travelled  over  the  western  islands  to  Boeotia,  where 
he  was  held  in  high  honour  as  a wise  law-giver  and  judge, 
and  where  he  married  Alkmene,  mother  of  Herakles.  After 
death  he  became  judge  in  the  underworld.  Sarpedon  founded 
a mighty  dominion  in  Lykia,  and  Crete  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  eldest  brother,  Minos.  He  is  the  representative  of 
law,  order  and  authority,  and  the  legends  connected  with 
his  name  show  that  the  prosperity  and  greatness  of  Crete 
were  distinguished  even  in  early  times.  These  legends  were 
so  many  and  so  important  that  it  seemed  impossible  to 
ascribe  them  all  to  one  hero.  People  therefore  supposed 


VI.] 


MINOS 


199 


that  there  were  two  kings  of  the  same  name,  and  the  second 
was  called  grandson  of  the  first  and  son  of  Lykastos. 

King  Minos  was  known  for  his  severe  righteousness.  The 
wise  laws  which  he  gave  his  people  were  communicated  to 
him  by  Zeus  in  his  own  person.  Once  in  nine  years  Minos 
retreated  to  a sacred  cave,  where  he  received  from  the 
supreme  god  new  laws  and  instructions.  He,  like  his 
brother,  entered  after  death  on  the  office  of  judge  of  the 
underworld. 

Minos  encouraged  ship-building,  and  was  himself  a famous 
admiral,  who  sailed  the  seas  to  extend  and  defend  his 
dominions.  Under  his  protection  trade  and  commerce 
flourished.  But  he  committed  a grievous  fault  against  his 
patron  Poseidon  ; he  stole  the  sacred  bull  which  Poseidon 
had  sent  from  the  sea,  and  instead  of  sacrificing  it  to  the 
god,  as  he  had  promised,  he  kept  it  among  his  own  herds. 
As  a punishment  Poseidon  caused  Pasiphae^  wife  of  Minos, 
to  bear  instead  of  a child  a monster,  half-bull,  half-man, 
called  the  Minotaur.  She  had  already  borne  to  the  king  two 
daughters,  Ariadne  and  Phaidra.  Minos  shut  the  Minotaur 
up  in  a large  building  consisting  of  innumerable  subter- 
ranean chambers  and  dark  winding  ways.  This  building 
was  a work  of  Daidalos  the  Athenian  artificer,  and  was 
called  the  Labyrinth.  Any  one  who  once  entered  it  could 
never  find  his  way  out,  but  became  the  prey  of  the  Minotaur. 
Minos  used  to  send  all  criminals  into  this  dungeon. 

The  marine  dominion  of  Minos  was  so  extended  that  he 
even  subdued  sorne  kings  in  Greece.  Aigeus^  King  of 
Athens,  had  slain  Androgeos^  son  of  Minos,  out  of  jealousy, 
because,  coming  as  a stranger  youth  to  Athens,  he  had 
excelled  in  the  Games.  To  avenge  the  death  of  his  son 
Minos  took  Megara  by  cunning  and  treachery,  and  blockaded 
Athens.  The  inhabitants,  being  hard  pressed  by  hunger 


200 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[CHAP. 


and  disease,  were  forced  to  make  terms,  and  promised  to 
send  to  Crete  every  eighth  year  an  offering  of  seven 
maidens  and  seven  youths  to  be  thrown  as  prey  to  the 
Minotaur.  Theseus,  son  of  Aigeus,  freed  Athens  from  this 
dreadful  and  shameful  tax. 

The  death  of  Minos  is  connected  with  the  legend  of 
Daidalos^  builder  of  the  Labyrinth. 

Daidalos  was  born  in  Athens,  and  was  a famous  craftsman 
and  artist.  His  nephew  and  pupil,  Talos^  was  dowered  with 
such  skill  by  the  gods  that  he  equalled  and  almost  surpassed 
his  master.  So  Daidalos  was  seized  with  bitter  envy,  and 
once,  when  he  was  alone  with  Talos,  he  treacherously 
threw  him  from  a rock  so  that  he 'died.  Daidalos  escaped 
punishment  by  fleeing  to  Crete.  There  he  made  many 
works  of  art,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  Minos,  and  yet. 
he  longed  to  return  to  his  native  land.  Minos  would  not 
allow  him  to  leave  Crete,  because  he  could  not  do  without 
his  services  as  an  architect  and  sculptor  ; and  when  Daidalos 
and  his  son  Ikaros  tried  to  escape  across  the  sea,  Minos 
overtook  them  with  his  swift  ships  and  put  them  under 
guard.  And  now  Daidalos^  art  stood  him  in  good  stead. 
He  made  artificial  wings  for  himself  and  his  son,  and  by 
their  aid  they  got  safely  across  the  sea  to  Sicily.  But  the 
gods  took  vengeance  on  Daidalos  for  the  murder  of  Talos. 
Ikaros,  in  flying  through  the  air,  in  spite  of  his  father^s 
warning,  went  too  near  the  sun.  The  wax  which  fastened 
the  feathers  of  his  wings  was  melted,  and  before  Daidalos 
could  rescue  him  he  fell  into  the  sea,  afterwards  called 
Ikarian  in  memory  of  him.  Minos  hastened  after  Daidalos, 
and  at  last  found  him  in  Sicily.  He  was  received  with 
apparent  friendliness,  but  by  Daidalos’  order  was  suffocated 
in  a hot  bath. 


VI.J 


PELOPS 


2ot 


7.  ELIS  AND  ARGOS. 

Before  turning  to  the  principal  heroes,  Herakles  and 
Theseus,  we  must  speak  of  Pelops^^  who  is  not  only  an 
important  figure  in  himself,  but  the  ancestor  of  a long  line 
of  heroes  who  became  the  victims  of  a tragic  destiny.  Pelops 
was  a son  of  Tantalos^  a brother  of  Niobe,  the  unhappy  wife 
of  Amphion  of  Thebes.  Tantalos  himself  was  so  beloved 
by  the  gods  that  they  even  admitted  him  to  their  table  in 
Olympos,  but  he  betrayed  their  confidence,  revealed  the 
secrets  of  Olympos  to  men,  stole  nectar  and  ambrosia,  and 
on  one  occasion,  when  the  gods  were  his  guests,  placed 
before  them,  as  a test  of  their  omniscience,  the  flesh  of 
Pelops,  his  son,  whom  he  had  cruelly  slaughtered.  The  gods 
at  once  discovered  the  crime.  They  brought  Pelops  to  life 
again,  but  sent  the  cruel  father  to  the  underworld,  where  he 
had  to  suffer  grievous  torments. 

Pelops  grew  up  among  the  gods,  and  then  was  allowed  to 
return  to  earth.  After  wandering  for  a long  time  through 
Phrygia  he  came  to  Elis  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece, 
founded  a kingdom  there,  and  became  a benefactor  to  his 
subjects  by  giving  them  good  laws  and  institutions.  The 
whole  southern  peninsular  of  Greece  was  supposed  to  have 
taken  its  name,  Peloponnesus,  from  him.  When  Pelops 
came  to  Elis  Oinomaos^  a son  of  Ares,  was  king,  and  he  had 
one  daughter,  Hippodameia,  An  oracle  had  told  the  king 
that  he  should  perish  by  means  of  his  son-in-law,  and  there- 
fore in  order  to  postpone  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
he  promised  her  hand  to  any  one  who  should  beat  him  in  a 
chariot-race.  Now,  Oinomaos  had  very  swift  horses,  and  was 
a skilful  and  crafty  driver,  so  that  no  one  had  ever  been  able 
to  overcome  him.  The  unsuccessful  suitors  he  put  to  death 


* E.  Thraemer,  “ Pergamos  ” (Tantalos,  p.  84). 


202 


[CHAf. 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


by  a thrust  of  the  spear.  Pelops  was  undaunted  by  the 
danger  of  the  enterprize,  and  became  a suitor  for  Hippo- 
dameia^s  hand  ; the  gods  were  on  his  side,  and  Poseidon 
gave  him  a golden  chariot  and  wind-swift  horses,  with  which 
he  won  the  race  and  the  hand  of  Hippodameia.  It  is  related 
that  Myrtilos,  the  charioteer  of  the  king,  being  bribed  before 
the  start  by  Pelops,  loosened  a wheel  of  Oinomaos’  chariot, 
so  that  it  was  overturned  in  mid  course  and  dashed  to  pieces. 
When  Myrtilos  demanded  a reward  for  his  treachery,  Pelops 
threw  him  from  a steep  cliff  into  the  sea.  As  he  died, 
Myrtilos  cursed  Pelops  and  all  his  house,  and  this  curse  was 
fulfilled  in  the  sufferings  and  calamities  of  later  generations. 
In  the  eastern  pediment  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia 
was  represented  the  preparation  for  the  contest  between 
Pelops  and  Oinomaos. 

Pelops  was  famous  for  his  revival  of  the  Olympian  Games, 
which  he  celebrated  with  great  brilliancy  and  splendour. 
After  his  death  he  was  worshipped  with  yearly  underworld 
sacrifices  by  the  inhabitants  of  Elis,  in  a temple  in  the  sacred 
grove  of  Olympia. 

The  sons  of  Pelops,  called  Pelopidai^  had  to  feel  the 
effects  of  Myrtilos’  curse.  Misfortune  began  with  the 
murder  of  Chrysippos^  Pelops’  favourite  son,  by  his  brothers 
Atreus  and  Thyestes^  who  were  banished  for  their  crime. 
Atreus  came  to  Mykenai,  the  royal  residence  of  Argos, 
where  his  brother-in-law.  King  Sthenelos^  son  of  Perseus 
and  Andromeda,  lived.  When  Eurystheus,  son  of  Sthenelos, 
fell  in  battle,  Atreus  came  to  the  throne  and  founded  a new 
dynasty.  His  sons  were  Agamemnon,  leader  of  the  expedi- 
tion against  Troy,  and  Menelaos,  King  of  Sparta,  whose  wife 
Helena  was  taken  away  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  of  Troy,  and 
thus  gave  occasion  to  the  Trojan  war. 

Atreus’  brother,  Thyestes,  had  come  to  Mykenai  with 


VI.] 


ATREUS  AND  THYESTES 


203 


him,  but  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country  because  he 
wished  to  corrupt  the  wife  of  Atreus.  Thyestes  had  brought 
up  Pleisthenes,  son  of  Atreus,  as  his  own  son,  and  for  the 
sake  of  revenge  he  sent  him  to  Mykenai  to  murder  Atreus. 
Atreus  discovered  the  design,  and  slew  Pleisthenes,  not 
knowing  that  he  was  his  son.  He  then  invited  his  brother 
Thyestes  to  return,  as  if  he  wished  to  be  reconciled,  but 
when  Thyestes  came,  Atreus  made  a meal  for  him  of  the 
flesh  of  his  two  sons,  and  when  he  had  eaten,  showed  him 
their  hands  and  heads.  Thyestes  fled  in  horror,  and  even 
the  sun-god  is  said  to  have  shuddered  at  the  deed,  and 
turned  his  course  aside.  Famine  and  distress  came  on 
Argos,  and  an  oracle  commanded  that  Thyestes  should  be 
brought  back.  After  a long  search  he  was  found,  brought 
to  Argos,  and  shut  in  a dungeon.  At  last  Atreus  tried  to 
bribe  Aigisthos,  son  of  Thyestes,  to  kill  his  own  father,  but 
the  vengeance  of  the  gods  overtook  him,  and  he  was  himself 
slain  by  Aigisthos  at  a sacrifice.  After  Atreus^  death, 
Agamemnon  ascended  the  throne  of  Argos,  and  became  the 
most  powerful  prince  in  Greece.  Menelaos,  by  his  marriage 
with  Helena,  became  ruler  of  Sparta. 

8.  Herakles.  * 

Herakles  is  the  great  popular  hero  of  Greece,  and  his 
exploits  have  remained  famous  down  to  modern  times. 
The  mythical  history  of  his  life,  which  contains  a multitude 
of  adventures,  may  be  divided  into  four  parts. 

(a)  Birth  and  Youth, 

The  parents  of  Herakles  were  Zeus  and  Alkmene,  wife  of 
King  Amphitryon,  who  was  son  of  Alkaios  and  grandson  of 

^ f Euripides,  “ Hercules  Furens.” 

\ Ibid.,  “Herakles,”  erkldrt  zon  U,  v.  Wila?nowitz  Moellendorf, 


204 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Perseus.  Hera  had  discovered  that  Alkmene  was  her  rival 
in  the  favour  of  Zeus  ; she  therefore  hated  and  persecuted 
her,  and  was  an  enemy  of  Herakles  from  his  very  birth. 
Zeus  had  sworn  to  Hera  one  day  that  whoever  should  be 
born  before  night  should  bear  rule  over  all  those  about  him. 
Hera  therefore  delayed  the  birth  of  Herakles,  and  caused 
Eurystheus,  son  of  Sthenelos,  to  come  into  the  world. 
Herakles  was  born  later,  and  must  be  subject  to  Eurystheus. 
But  Zeus  made  his  son  immortal  in  this  wise  ; he  com- 
manded Hermes  to  bring  the  boy  to  Hera,  and  the  goddess, 
pleased  with  his  beauty,  laid  him  at  her  breast,  where 
Herakles  sucked  in  immortality.  When  Hera  knew  who 
the  child  was,  she  flung  him  away  in  anger,  and  from  the 
few  drops  of  milk  which  fell  was  made  the  milky  way,  an 
endless  cloud  of  constellations  running  in  a white  streak 
across  the  sky. 

While  ^ still  a child  in  the  cradle,  Herakles  showed  himself 
to  be  the  son  of  a god.  When  Hera  sent  two  snakes  in  the 
night  to  kill  him  Herakles  seized  them  in  sport  and  strangled 
them,  while  Iphikles^  his  brother,  woke  their  parents  with 
his  cries.  Amphitryon,  step-father  of  Herakles,  soon  saw 
the  divine  nature  in  the  child,  and  had  him  carefully  taught 
by  the  most  skilful  masters  all  the  arts  which  heroes  must 
practise.  Herakles  made  great  progress,  but  developed  a 
very  violent  temper,  which  overcame  him  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  slew  his  master,  Linos,  who  had  taught  him  to  play 
the  lyre.  After  this  Amphitryon  sent  him  away  from  his 
court  to  feed  flocks  in  the  country,  an  occupation  considered 
at  that  time  by  no  means  unworthy  of  a king^s  son.  Herakles 
remained  there  till  he  was  eighteen  years  old. 

Once  during  this  sojourn,  when  Herakles  was  standing  at  a 
place  where  two  ways  met,  two  goddesses  appeared  to  him. 


* Theokritos,  Idylls  xxiv.  and  xxv. 


VI.J 


THE  CHOICE  OF  HERAKLES 


2o; 


One,  who  was  beautiful  and  attractive,  spoke  kindly  to  him, 
and  promised  him  freedom  from  all  the  cares  and  troubles 
of  life,  and  the  enjoyment  of  pleasures  of  every  kind,  if  he 
would  only  follow  her  guidance.  The  other,  more  grave 
than  beautiful,  with  a serious  and  modest  air,  promised  him 
honour  and  fame  among  gods  and  men,  if  he  would  follow 
her  and  bravely  undergo  the  toils  and  hardships  of  life. 
Herakles  knew  that  the  first  was  the  goddess  of  pleasure, 
the  second,  of  virtue.  He  remembered  his  divine  origin 
and  his  high  destiny,  and  in  token  of  allegiance,  gave  his 
hand  to  virtue,  thus  dedicating  himself  to  her  for  ever,  and 
choosing  of  hisown  accord  a hero’s  career. 

We  must  remember  that  modern  and  heroic  ideals  of 
virtue  are  very  different.  It  was  not  damaging  to  the  repu- 
tation of  a hero  to  do  many  things  which  would  now  be 
considered  as  violations  of  justice  and  good  faith.  A hero 
was  one  who  slew  dangerous  monsters  and  wild  beasts, 
subdued  lawless  robbers,  brought  barren  land  under  cultiva- 
tion, founded  colonies  or  furthered  in  any  way  the  culture 
and  civilization  of  the  men  around  him,  even  although  he 
was  not  “ virtuous  ” in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word.  For 
such  deeds  of  bravery  Herakles  was  the  most  renowned  of 
all  heroes.  His  extraordinary  strength  and  gigantic  stature 
gave  him  great  advantage  in  his  exploits,  and  his  active  and 
magnanimous  temper  and  quick  determination  made  him 
enter  without  hesitation  on  any  adventure  on  behalf  of  his 
fellow-men.  But  Herakles  in  spite  of  his  valour  was  most 
unhappy.  From  his  very  birth  he  had  to  fight  with  evil 
fate,  but,  conscious  of  his  power,  he  stood  all  trials,  and  was 
finally  rewarded  by  a place  among  the  Olympian  gods  and 
the  hand  of  Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth. 

Herakles  gave  the  first  proof  of  his  bravery  and  strength 
by  slaying  a mighty  lion,  who  was  devouring  the  herds  of 


2o6 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Thestios,  King  of  Thespiai,  on  Mount  Kithairon.  Then 
he  freed  his  native  city  Thebes  from  a shameful  tribute 
which  had  been  imposed  by  the  men  of  Orchomenos,  and 
forced  these  lawless  neighbours  themselves  to  pay  tribute 
to  Thebes.  These  were  the  deeds  of  Herakles’  freedom,  to 
which  succeeded  the  period  of  slavery  under  Eur3/stheus. 
King  Kreon  of  Thebes,  who  succeeded  Amphitryon,  out 
of  gratitude  to  Herakles  gave  him  his  daughter,  Megara^ 
to  wife.  Hera  was  jealous  of  the  heroes  fame,  and  visited 
him  with  madness,  in  consequence  of  which  he  killed  the 
children  whom  Megara  had  borne  to  him.  When  he  came 
to  himself,  he  went  in  great  remorse  to  the  Oracle  of  Delphi, 
and  was  commanded  to  expiate  the  guilt  of  blood  by  enter- 
ing the  service  of  Eurystheus^  and  performing  the  twelve 
labours  which  he  should  impose. 

(3)  Service  under  Eurystheus. 

After  long  and  solitary  meditation,  Herakles  resigned 
himself  to  obedience,  went  to  Mykenai,  and  fulfilled  the 
twelve  tasks  set  him  by  Eurystheus. 

1.  The  Nemean  lion  was  devastating  the  forests  of 
Argolis,  between  Nemea  and  Kleonai,  and  no  man  could 
wound  it.  The  hero  seized  the  lion  in  his  powerful  arms, 
threw  it  down,  and  pressing  on  its  body  with  his  knees, 
strangled  it  with  his  hands.  He  then  took  off  the  invulner- 
able skin  and  hung  it  round  his  shoulders. 

2.  The  Hydra,  a monstrous  snake  with  a hundred  heads, 
which  always  grew  again  when  they  were  cut  off,  lived  in 
the  swamps  of  Lerna,  in  Argolis.  She  dragged  men  and 
beasts  into  her  den  and  strangled  them.  Herakles  and  his 
comrade  lolaos  slew  the  monster  ; as  fast  as  Herakles  had 
cut  off  one  of  the  snake^s  heads  with  his  sword,  lolaos 
burned  the  stump  with  a firebrand,  so  that  it  could  not 


VI.] 


SERVICE  UNDER  EURYSIHEUS. 


207 


grow  again.  But  when  Eurystheus  heard  that  Herakles 
had  had  the  help  of  lolaos  in  this  adventure,  he  refused  to 
reckon  it  as  one  of  the  twelve  labours,  and  imposed  a new 
one.  Herakles  dipped  his  arrows  in  the  blood  of  the  dead 
snake,  and  they  became  poisonous  and  absolutely  fatal. 

3.  And  now  the  hero  was  commanded  to  catch  the 
Keryneian  stag,  which  was  sacred  to  Artemis.  This  stag 
lived  in  the  Keryneian  Mountain,  had  brazen  feet  and  golden 
horns,  and  was  marvellously  swift.  After  an  unwearied  and 
incessant  chase  of  a year,  Herakles  overtook  the  swift-footed 
beast,  seized  it  and  brought  it  to  Mykenai.  The  goddess 
Artemis  was  offended,  but  he  appeased  her  by  the  excuse 
that  he  had  only  acted  by  command  of  King  Eurystheus. 

4.  The  Erymanthian  boar  devastated  the  plains  of 
Thessaly  round  Mount  Erymanthos.  This  monster  had 
resisted  all  attacks,  but  when  Herakles  came,  it  fled  before 
him  to  the  heights  of  the  snow-covered  mountains,  and 
there  he  caught  it.  When  Eurystheus  saw  the  boar,  he 
was  so  terrified  that  he  crept  into  a cask  to  hide  himself. 

While  Herakles  was  on  the  way  to  catch  the  boar,  he  came 
to  the  woodland  cave  where  his  friend,  the  Centaur  Pliolos^ 
lived.  Being  parched  with  thirst,  he  persuaded  Pholos  to 
open  a cask  of  precious  Avine,  Avhich  Avas  a gift  of  the  gods 
and  common  property  of  all  the  Centaurs.  The  fragrance 
of  the  wine  Avas  so  strong  that  the  Centaurs  came  in  haste, 
meaning  to  slay  the  thief,  but  after  a desperate  fight  they 
were  themselves  slain  by  Herakles’  poisoned  arrows.  Pholos, 
too,  lost  his  life  ; he  had  draAvn  an  arroAv  from  the  body  of 
a dead  Centaur  and  Avas  curiously  examining  it,  when  it  fell 
from  his  hand  and  scratched  his  foot.  Herakles  found  his 
friend  dead  when  he  returned  from  his  pursuit  of  the  enemy. 

5.  In  the  great  Stable  of  ikuGEiAS  of  Elis  three  thou- 
sand cattle  bad  been  kept  for  a long  time.  Hence  the  task 


2o8 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


of  cleaning  the  stable  in  one  day  seemed  well-nigh  impossible. 
But  Herakles  broke  down  part  of  the  wall,  and  turned  the 
course  of  Alpheios  and  Kladeos,  two  rivers  which  flowed 
past  the  stable,  making  them  run  through  it,  and  wash  away 
all  the  mire.  Herakles  had  demanded  a share  of  the  cattle 
as  his  reward,  but  when  Angelas  knew  that  he  had  been 
sent  by  Eurystheus  he  refused  to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  bargain. 
For  this  treachery  he  was  afterwards  punished  severely. 

6.  In  the  marshy  forests  of  Stymphalos,  in  Arkadia,  lived 
the  Stymphalides,  huge  birds  of  prey,  with  brazen  wings, 
claws  and  beaks,  who  attacked  men  and  beasts.  Athene 
taught  Herakles  how  to  use  a brazen  rattle,  to  frighten  the 
birds  out  of  their  roosting-places,  so  that  he  could  shoot 
them  one  by  one  as  they  flew. 

7.  In  Crete  Herakles  caught  the  mad  bull  which  was 
destroying  the  crops  on  the  island.  This  was  the  bull 
which  Minos  had  promised  to  sacrifice  to  Poseidon,  but  kept 
for  himself  because  of  its  great  size  and  beauty.  Herakles 
brought  the  raging  beast  alive  to  Mykenai,  but  Eurystheus 
let  it  loose  again,  and  it  wasted  the  fields  of  Attika  and  the 
valley  of  Marathon.  In  the  legend  of  Theseus  it  appears 
again  as  the  Marathonian  bull.’^ 

8.  The  eighth  labour  was  to  bring  the  horses  of  King 
Diomede  of  Thrace  to  Mykenai.  This  cruel  king  used  to 
throw  to  his  horses  all  strangers  who  entered  his  country, 
and  the  horses  devoured  them.  Herakles,  with  his  following 
of  brave  men,  sailed  to  Thrace,  slew  King  Diomede  and  the 
keepers  of  the  horses,  brought  the  animals  on  board,  and 
sailed  back  to  King  Eurystheus.  Then  he  drove  the  horses 
out  into  the  mountains,  where  they  were  torn  in  pieces  by 
wild  beasts.  Abderos^  one  of  Herakles’  companions,  was 
killed  by  the  horses  in  the  struggle.  Herakles  founded  the 
town  Abdera  to  his  memory,  and  named  it  after  him. 


VI.] 


HESIONE,  GERYON 


20^ 


9.  After  this,  Herakles  had  to  go  to  the  land  of  Scythia, 
(now  the  South  of  Russia),  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  fetch 
the  GIRDLE  of  the  Amazon  queen  Hippolyta  for  the  daugh- 
ter of  Eurystheus.  He  slew  the  brave  queen  in  a battle 
which  he  fought  with  her  and  her  warlike  Amazons,  took 
the  girdle,  and  brought  it  to  Mykenai. 

During  this  voyage  Herakles  stopped  at  Troy,  and  found 
that  the  sacrifice  of  Hesione,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  was 
about  to  take  place.  We  have  already  told  how  Apollo  and 
Poseidon  had  helped  Laomedon  to  build  his  rampart.  When 
the  work  Avas  finished,  Laomedon  refused  the  promised  re- 
ward, and,  as  a punishment,  Poseidon  sent  a monster  from 
the  deep  sea  to  lay  waste  the  Trojan  coast.  An  oracle  de- 
cided that  the  anger  of  the  god  could  only  be  appeased  by 
the  sacrifice  of  Hesione.  At  the  very  moment  when  the 
maiden  was  standing  bound,  and  the  monster  was  approach- 
ing from  the  sea,  Herakles  arrived,  and  slew  it  with  his  un- 
erring arrows.  But  Laomedon  behaved  treacherously  to 
Herakles,  and  refused  him  the  horses  Avhich  had  been  set 
for  a reward.  Herakles  reserved  for  a later  time  his  revenge 
on  Laomedon,  wishing  first  to  free  himself  from  Eurystheus. 

10.  On  the  island  of  Erythia,  far  in  the  Avest  of  Okeanos, 
lived  the  three-bodied  giant  Geryon,  whose  beautiful  herds 
of  cattle  were  guarded  by  a mighty  dog  with  three  heads. 
On  the  way  to  this  island  from  Argos,  Herakles  must  pass 
through  the  so-called  Pillars  of  Hercules,  now  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar.  About  this  journey  the  poets  relate  many  stories. 
As  he  was  travelling  through  the  desert  of  Libya  he  suffered 
much  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun,  for  Helios  drove  his 
fiery  car  low  doAvn  over  his  head,  and  he  raised  his  boAV  to 
shoot  at  the  god.  Helios,  who  was  immortal  and  invulner- 
able, was  pleased  Avith  the  courage  of  the  hero,  and  lent  him 
a golden  boat  to  sail  to  Erythia.  Herakles  reached  the 

15 


210 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


island  in  safety,  slew  the  herdsman  and  his  dog,  and  was 
just  carrying  off  the  cattle,  when  Geryon  discovered  the  theft 
and  seized  him.  After  a long  struggle  Geryon  was  defeated. 
On  his  way  home  Herakles  had  many  adventures.  In  Italy 
the  giant  Cacus  stole  some  of  the  cattle  and  hid  them  in  his 
cave,  where  the  town  of  Rome  afterwards  stood.  Herakles 
heard  the  cattle  low,  traced  them  to  their  hiding-place,  and 
slew  Cacus. 

1 1 . Herakles^  next  task  was  to  fetch  the  golden  apples  of 
the  Hesperides.  These  were  the  fruits  which  Gaia  had 
brought  as  a bridal  gift  to  the  marriage  of  Zeus  and  Hera. 
The  Hesperides,  who  lived  in  the  far  west,  had  received 
them  from  Zeus,  and  planted  them  in  the  earth.  Trees  had 
grown  up  from  the  seeds,  and  on  the  trees  hung  precious  fruit, 
guarded  by  the  Nymphs  and  the  huge  dragon  Ladon.  As 
Herakles  did  not  know  where  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides 
lay,  he  wandered  for  a long  time,  and  met  with  many 
dangerous  adventures  before  he  reached  it.  In  vain  he 
asked  the  nymphs  of  Eridanos  and  other  rivers,  and  at  last 
by  stratagem  he  forced  Nereus^  the  prophetic  old  man  of 
the  sea,  to  tell  him  which  way  to  go.  In  Libya  he  met  the 
giant  Antazos^  son  of  Gaia,  whom  no  one  could  master  be- 
cause he  renewed  his  strength  as  soon  as  he  touched  the 
Earth,  his  mother.  Herakles  defeated  him  by  lifting  him 
in  the  air  and  strangling  him.  In  Egypt  lived  King  Busin's^ 
who  sacrificed  all  strangers  to  his  gods.  Herakles  was  to  be 
sacrificed  like  the  others,  but  he  broke  the  chains  with  which 
he  was  bound,  and  killed  the  cruel  king.  As  he  passed 
Mount  Caucasus  he  freed  Promethus,  who  was  bound  to 
the  rock.  After  tedious  wanderings,  Herakles  came  where 
the  giant  Atlas  bore  the  heavens  on  his  shoulders.  Atlas 
was  the  uncle  of  the  Hesperides,  and  by  his  mediation  the 
apples  were  given  to  Herakles  on  condition  that  he  should 


VI.] 


THE  HESPERIDES 


2II 


bring  them  back  again.  According  to  another  version  of 
the  story,  Herakles  himself  entered  the  garden,  slew  the 
dragon,  and  plucked  the  apples. 

12.  The  last  and  hardest  labour  was  to  fetch  the  dog 
Kerberos  from  the  underworld.  By  the  aid  of  the  gods 
Herakles  entered  the  shadow-kingdom,  and  left  it  alive, 
which  no  mortal  man  had  ever  done  before.  Hades  allowed 
Herakles  to  take  the  dog  to  the  upper  world  on  condition 
that  he  should  master  it  without  weapons,  and  bring  it  back 
again  uninjured.  In  the  realm  of  Hades  Herakles  found  ^ 
Theseus  and  Peirithoos  firmly  fastened  to  a rock  for  the 
crime  of  attempting  to  carry  off  Persephone.  He  succeeded 
in  liberating  Theseus,  but  when  he  was  about  to  take 
Peirithoos’  hand  the  earth  shook,  and  thus  signified  the 
will  of  the  gods  that  the  friend  of  Theseus  should  still 
suffer  for  his  crime.  Herakles  having  brought  the  dog 
Kerberos  safely  to  Eurystheus,  was  freed  from  his  slavery, 
and  from  that  time  was  honoured  as  the  greatest  of  national 
heroes. 


{c)  Later  exploits  of  Herakles. 

Before  Herakles  could  enjoy  a peaceful  life  he  had  to 
stand  a new  and  severe  test.  King  Eurytos  of  Oichalia  had 
promised  his  beautiful  daughter  lole  to  the  hero  who  could 
excel  him  in  shooting  with  the  bow.  Herakles  achieved 
an  easy  victory  ; but  Eurytos  behaved  treacherously,  taunted 
Herakles  with  his  slavery  under  Eurystheus,  and  refused  to 
give  him  his  daughter.  Herakles  left  Oichalia  in  great 
wrath,  and  meeting  Iphitos^  son  of  Eurytos,  he  threw  him 
down  from  the  battlements  of  the  royal  palace  at  Tiryns. 
By  this  revengeful  act  Herakles  again  forfeited  the  favour  of 


* In  Aus  der  Anomia^  Karl  Robert  dargebracht,  Berlin,  18905  J. 
Toepffer,  “ Theseus  und  Peirithoos,” 


212 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


the  gods,  and  in  his  restless  wanderings  he  came  to  Delphi. 
When  Apollo  refused  to  allow  him  to  enter  his  sanctuary, 
Herakles  raised  his  hand  in  sacrilege  against  the  holy  place. 
He  seized  the  tripod  from  which  the  Pythia  used  to  announce 
the  will  of  the  god,  and  was  dragging  it  out  of  the  temple, 
when  Apollo  himself  came  forth  to  resist  him,  and  if  Zeus 
had  not  interfered  his  two  sons  would  have  engaged  in  a 
mortal  struggle.  The  Pythia,  at  the  command  of  Zeus,  con- 
sulted the  Oracle,  and  received  the  response  that  Herakles 
must  be  sold  for  three  years  as  a slave.^  He  now  entered 
the  service  of  Omphale^  queen  of  Lydia,  and  was  brought  so 
low  that  he  was  dressed  in  women’s  clothes,  and  span  among 
the  servants  of  Omphale,  while  she  put  on  his  lion-skin  and 
carried  his  club.  Yet  during  this  year  of  slavery  Herakles 
did  not  forget  that  his  duty  was  to  punish  injustice  wherever 
he  found  it,  to  help  the  oppressed  and  to  do  deeds  of  courage 
and  righteousness.  Among  others,  he  punished  the  lawless 
dwarf  race  of  the  Kerkopes^  who  had  been  the  torment  of 
travellers  for  a long  time. 

After  a lapse  of  three  years  Herakles  returned  to  Greece 
in  unimpaired  strength  and  vigour. 

Among  the  brilliant  adventures  which  won  for  him  the 
reputation  of  a popular  hero,  were  the  expedition  of  the 
Argonauts  and  the  first  siege  of  Troy.  The  cause  of 
the  siege  was  the  treachery  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy. 
As  a reward  to  Herakles  for  saving  the  life  of  his  daughter 
Hesione,  he  had  promised  him  the  horses  of  Tros,  his  father, 
which  were  a gift  from  Zeus,  but  he  broke  his  word.  Herakles 
took  to  him  other  heroes.  Telamon^  father  of  Aias,  Peleus^ 
father  of  Achilles,  Oikles^  father  of  Amphiaraos,  and  be- 
sieged the  faithless  king  in  his  fortress.  Telamon  was  the 


* In  Aus  der  Anomia,  Karl  Robert  dargebracht ; K.  Wernicke,  “Zur 
Geschichte  der  Heraklessage.’’ 


VI.] 


THE  FIRST  SIEGE  OF  TROY 


213 


first  to  scale  the  walls,  and  Laomedon  with  all  his  sons,  ex- 
cept Podarkes^  were  slain  by  the  arrows  of  Herakles.  Hesione 
fell  to  the  share  of  Telamon,  the  victor.  By  her  pleading  she 
gained  the  life  of  Podarkes  ; he  was  called  Priamos^  and 
founded  a new  royal  dynasty  in  Troy,  after  Herakles  had 
gone  away  with  the  Greeks. 

As  the  heroes  were  sailing  home,  they  were  driven  by  a 
storm  to  Kos,  where  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  refused 
them  hospitality  in  their  distress ; therefore  the  heroes 
attacked  them  and  destroyed  their  city.  In  a campaign 
against  Pylos,  Herakles  defeated  Periklyinenos^  who  pos- 
sessed the  power  of  transformation  and  could  only  be  de- 
feated by  the  help  of  Athene.  King  Neleus^  too,  with  all  his 
sons,  perished,  only  Nestor  remained  alive.  Soon  after  this 
the  tireless  hero  marched  out  to  take  vengeance  on  the  Hip- 
pocoontydai  in  Lacedaemon,  who  had  driven  out  Tyndareus 
the  rightful  ruler,  his  friend.  He  succeeded  in  restoring 
Tyndareus  to  his  throne,  but  many  heroes  perished,  among 
others  the  sons  of  King  Kepheus  of  Tegea.  Augep  daughter 
of  Kepheus,  bore  Herakles  a son,  Telephos^  who  inherited 
his  father’s  powers,  and  was  fated  to  have  a strange,  chequered 
career.  Exposed  as  an  infant  by  Kepheus,  he  was  suckled 
by  a doe.  His  mother  was  sold  as  a slave,  and  bought  by 
Teuthras^  king  of  Mysia,  who  made  her  his  queen  ; the 
mother  and  son  were  then  re-united,  and  Telephos  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  throne  of  Mysia.  When  the  Greeks  landed 
on  the  shores  of  Mysia  on  their  way  to  Troy,  and  fell  into  strife 
with  the  inhabitants,  Telephos  was  wounded  by  Achilles, 
but  after  peace  was  made,  his  wound  was  healed  by  rust 
from  the  spear  which  had  inflicted  it. 

Passing  over  numerous  exploits  of  Herakles,  we  shall  now 
relate  those  which  precede  his  death. 


Thraemer,  I'ergamos.' 


214 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap.  • 


(d)  Herakles^  death  and  Apotheosis?- 

Herakles  had  formerly  wooed  lole^  daughter  of  King 
Eurytos  ; but  although  he  fulfilled  the  conditions  laid  down, 
the  king  treacherously  refused  to  give  her  to  him.  He 
therefore  married  Deianeira^  daughter  of  Oineus^  prince  of 
Kalydon.  In  order  to  possess  her  he  was  obliged  to  engage 
in  a deadly  struggle  with  the  river-god  Achelods,  The 
god  took  many  shapes,  but  Herakles  held  him  firmly  all 
the  time,  and  when  at  last  he  turned  into  a monstrous  bull, 
Herakles  broke  off  his  horn,  and  Acheloos  was  obliged  to 
own  himself  defeated.  Herakles  lived  long  and  happily 
with  Deianeira  and  his  son  Hyllos.  Once  when  he  was  on 
a journey  with  his  wife,  they  came  to  a mountain  stream, 
swollen  to  a torrent  by  heavy  rains.  He  himself  easily 
strode  through  the  water,  and  the  Centaur  Nessos^  who 
happened  to  come  up,  offered  to  ferry  Deianeira  over  on  his 
back.  Being  smitten  with  her  beauty  he  tried  to  carry  her 
off,  but  was  instantly  pierced  by  Herakles’  unerring  shaft. 
His  revenge  was  a terrible  one  ; as  he  was  dying,  he  told 
Deianeira  to  take  some  of  his  blood,  and  if  ever  her  husband 
should  be  faithless  to  her,  to  smear  some  of  it  on  his  robes, 
when  the  old  love  would  at  once  return  to  his  heart. 

Herakles  now  marched  against  Eurytos,  to  punish  him  for 
his  treachery.  He  took  his  town,  Oichalia,  slew  him  and 
his  sons  and  carried  away  his  daughter  lole  to  Euboea  as  a 
captive.  There  Herakles  prepared  a great  sacrifice  to  Zeus 
on  a mountain  as  an  expression  of  his  gratitude,  and  sent  a 
messenger  to  Deianeira  to  ask  for  a white  robe,  such  as  it 
was  customary  to  wear  on  solemn  occasions.  Now  Deianeira 
had  heard  that  lole  was  with  Herakles,  and  she  feared  that 
Herakles  would  forget  her,  so  she  followed  the  advice  of 


^ Sophocles,  “ Trachiniae.’ 


VI.J 


DEA  TH  OF  HERAKLES 


215 


Nessos,  smeared  the  . robe  with  a salve  prepared  from  the 
blood  of  the  Centaur  and  sent  it  by  Lichas  to  her  husband. 
Herakles  had  no  suspicion,  and  put  it  on,  but  scarcely  had 
the  garment  touched  his  body  when  he  was  seized  with 
dreadful  pains  ; the  poison  spread  through  all  his  frame 
and  he  felt  death  approaching.  Deianeira  slew  herself  in 
horror  when  she  heard  the  news.  Herakles  caused  his 
attendants  to  carry  him  to  Mount  (Eta,  and  erect  a great 
pyre  of  wood  ; after  giving  his  bow  and  his  unerring  arrows 
to  his  friend  Philoktetes,  he  mounted  the  pyre  and  ordered 
it  to  be  set  on  fire.  As  the  flames  rose,  a cloud  covered  the 
hero’s  form,  while  Hermes  and  Iris  descended  to  carry  him 
to  Olympos.  There  he  was  made  immortal  and  married  to 
Hehe^  with  whom  he  led  a happy  and  glorified  existence, 
reconciled  to  Hera,  honoured  by  Zeus,  and  loved  by  all  the 
gods. 

Herakles  is  the  type  of  the  strength  and  heroic  virtue  of 
his  age.  The  Greek  races  honoured  him  as  such  and  erected 
many  temples  to  him,  some  of  which  have  been  discovered. 
The  Romans  paid  like  honours  to  Hercules, 

The  representations  of  Herakles  and  his  labours  in  art  are 
very  numerous.  He  usually  appears  as  a man  of  powerful 
frame,  of  full  age,  with  a thickly-curled  beard,  carrying  a 
club  and  wearing  a lion’s  skin  on  his  shoulders.  In  early 
Greek  art  he  carries  a bow. 

In  ancient  times  it  was  considered  a great  honour  to  be 
descended  from  Herakles.  His  posterity  called  themselves 
Heraklidai,  and  fought  long  and  bloody  contests  with  the 
Pelopidai,  children  of  Pelops,  of  whom  Eurystheus  was  one, 
for  the  possession  of  the  Peloponnese. 


2i6 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[CHAl^. 


9.  THESEUS.* * 

The  cultus  of  Theseus  holds  the  same  position  in  Attica 
and  among  the  lonians  as  that  of  Herakles  in  Argos  and 
Boeotia — hence  the  myths  of  the  two  heroes  have  many 
points  of  similarity. 

Theseus  was  descended  from  Erechiheus^  king  of  Athens. 
His  father  was  King  Aigeus^  and  his  mother  was  Aithra^ 
daughter  of  Pittheus^  king  of  Troezene,  and  grand-daughter 
of  Pelops.  He  was  brought  up  by  his  grandfather,  a man 
to  whom  great  virtues  and  many  wise  sayings  are  ascribed. 
He  practised  in  the  school  of  wrestling,  and  was  taught  by 
Cheiron  to  play  on  the  lyre.  When  he  was  seventeen  years 
old,  he  was  eager  to  prove  his  strength.  Some  time  before 
this  Aigeus,  on  taking  farewell  of  Aithra  in  Troezene,  had 
laid  his  sword  and  sandals  under  a huge  mass  of  rock, 
saying  that  as  soon  as  Theseus  could  lift  it,  Aithra  was  to 
give  him  the  sword  and  sandals  and  send  him  to  Athens. 
Theseus  now  lifted  the  rock,  took  the  sword  and  sandals 
and  journeyed  to  Athens.  On  his  way  thither  he  performed 
exploits  something  like  those  of  Herakles.  In  the  wild 
border -land  between  Troezene  and  Epidauros  he  slew 
Periphetes^  who  used  to  kill  with  his  iron  club  all  who 
passed  that  way.  Further,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  he 
overcame  the  robber  Sin  is,  who  murdered  all  travellers,  and 
he  founded  in  this  region  the  Isthmian  Games.  At  Krom- 
myon  the  hero  killed  the  terrible  wild  sow.  On  the  most 
dangerous  point  of  the  rocky  road  the  robber  Skeiron  dwelt. 
Theseus  threw  him  into  the  sea,  thus  treating  him  as  he 
treated  strangers.  At  Eleusis  a strong  robber  named 


[Plutarch,  “Theseus.” 

* 1 J.  E.  Harrison,  “Mythology  and  Monuments,”  p.  xcvili.-clvi. 

Gv.  Mannhardt,  “ Wald-und  P'eldkulte.” 

® Pausanias,  i.  19  and  27. 


THESEUS 


VI.  I 


Kerkyon  was  overcome  by  Theseus,  and  Damastes^  called 
also  Procrustes^  received  the  reward  of  his  wickedness. 
This  monster  used  to  stretch  all  who  came  to  his  dwelling 
on  a bed  ; if  they  were  too  long  for  it  he  hewed  off  some  of 


Fig.  45.  Cylix : Exploits  of  Theseus  {British  Museum), 


their  limbs,  if  they  were  too  short,  he  stretched  them  to  fit 
it  till  he  tore  them  in  sunder,  (Fig.  45.) 

When  Theseus  came  to  Athens  after  this  slaughter,  some 
friendly  countrymen  helped  him  to  cleanse  away  the  blood. 
As  he  wore  a long  Ionic  chiton,  in  which  he  looked  like  a 


2i8 


Myths  of  heroes 


[chap. 


maiden,  the  people  laughed  at  him,  saying  that  a girl 
should  not  walk  about  the  streets  alone.  To  show  that  he 
was  no  weak  woman,  Theseus  unyoked  the  oxen  from  a 
waggon  which  stood  near,  and  threw  them  high  into  the  air. 
In  Athens  Theseus  found  the  enchantress  Medeia  wedded  to 
his  father.  She  would  have  slain  him  by  poison,  but  when 
Aigeus  recognized  him  as  his  son  she  was  afraid,  and  fled. 

Pallas^  brother  of  Aigeus,  had  fifty  gigantic  sons,  called 
PalJantidai.  They  wished  to  deprive  Theseus  and  Aigeus, 
whom  they  supposed  childless,  of  the  dominion  over  Attica, 
but  Theseus  defeated  them.  He  then  mastered  the  wild 
bull  which  Herakles  had  brought  from  Crete  to  Greece,  and 
which  was  called  the  Marathonian  bull,  from  the  devasta- 
tions it  made  in  the  plain  of  Marathon.  Theseus  brought 
the  beast  alive  to  Athens  and  sacrificed  it  to  Athene,  who 
had  given  him  the  victory. 

But  Theseus’  most  famous  deed  was  the  slaying  of  the 
Minotaur.  Andr  )geos^  the  young  son  of  Minos,  king  of 
Crete,  had  died  at  Athens.  Therefore  Minos  made  war 
against  the  town,  took  it  and  granted  quarter  to  the  inhabi- 
tants on  condition  that  they  should  send  to  Crete  every 
ninth  year  seven  boys  and  seven  girls,  to  be  devoured  by  the 
monster  Minotaur.  Just  as  the  mournful  shipload  was  being 
sent  off  for  the  third  time,  Theseus  offered  to  make  one 
among  the  seven  boys.  When  he  came  to  Crete,  Ariadne, 
daughter  of  Minos,  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  by  her  ingen- 
uity Theseus  was  prepared  for  an  attack  on  the  Minotaur. 
This  monster  lived  in  the  Labyrinth,  a large  building  with 
countless  underground  passages  and  chambers,  out  of  which 
no  one  who  had  once  entered  it  could  escape.  Ariadne 
gave  Theseus  a clew  of  yarn,  one  end  of  which  he  made  fast 
to  the  door  ; holding  the  clew  in  his  hand,  and  unwinding 
it  as  he  walked,  he  reached  the  centre  of  the  building  ; 


VI.]  ARIADNE  219 

here,  after  a terrible  struggle,  he  slew  the  monster,  and 
then,  by  following  the  clew,  he  made  his  way  out  of  the 
Labyrinth.  Thus  Athens  was  freed  from  the  shameful  tax. 
Theseus,  with  his  rescuer,  Ariadne,  and  his  companions, 
secretly  went  on  board  ship  and  sailed  away  to  Athens. 
On  the  way  they  stopped  at  the  island  of  Naxos.  There 
Theseus  abandoned  Ariadne  while  she  was  asleep,  because 
he  would  not  bring  a foreign  wife  home  to  Athens.  How 
Dionysos  found  her,  made  her  immortal,  and  took  her  for 
his  bride,  we  have  already  heard.  The  despair  of  the  for- 
saken bride  and  her  joyful  union  to  Dionysos,  are  subjects 
which  poets  and  artists  have  often  treated. 

The  Athenians,  meanwhile,  were  waiting  in  the  greatest 
anxiety  for  the  return  of  the  ship.  Theseus  had  promised 
that  if  his  adventure  were  successful  a white  sail  should  be 
spread  instead  of  the  black  one  with  which  the  ship  had 
started,  but  in  his  joy  he  forgot  his  promise,  and  the  ship 
sailed  into  harbour  with  a black  sail.  When  Aigeus  saw 
this  he  thought  the  last  scion  of  his  family  had  perished, 
and  threw  himself  in  despair  from  a rocky  height  into  the 
sea,  which  is  called  the  ^gean  after  him  to  this  day. 

As  perpetual  reminders  of  this  exploit  Theseus  founded 
many  festivals  and  sacred  rites,  the  Pyanepsia  to  Apollo, 
feasts  to  Aphrodite  Pandemos,  and  others. 

Theseus  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts, 
and  fought  against  the  Amazons.  On  the  first  occasion, 
when  Herakles  took  the  girdle  of  Hippolyta,  Theseus  won 
the  love  of  Antiope  and  took  her  with  him  to  Athens  ; on 
the  second,  when  the  Amazons  invaded  Attica  with  a large 
army  to  avenge  this  rape,  they  were  put  to  flight  by  Theseus, 
and  their  army  was  almost  annihilated. 

Peirithoos,  ^ prince  of  Thessaly,  was  a dear  friend  of 


‘ In  Aus  der  Ano?nia^  J.  Toepffer,  ‘‘  Theseus  und  Peirithoos.” 


226 


[CHAt». 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


Theseus.  At  his  wedding  with  Hippodameia,  the  lawless 
Centaurs,  who  broke  in  and  interrupted  the  festivities,  were 
defeated  and  crushed  by  the  hero.  After  this  Peirithoos 
was  seized  by  a fatal  passion  for  Persephone,  and  even 
formed  the  mad  resolve  to  carry  her  off  from  the  very  side 
of  Pluto.  Theseus  joined  his  friend  in  this  enterprize,  but 
they  were  captured  in  Hades  and  kept  prisoners  till  Herakles 
set  them  free. 

After  the  death  of  his  father,  Aigeus,  Theseus  entered  on 
a brilliant  and  beneficent  reign.  He  founded  the  city  of 
Athens  by  uniting  the  scattered  townships  of  Attica  round 
the  Acropolis,  where  was  a common  sanctuary.  He  added 
splendour  to  the  Panathenaia,  the  famous  popular  festival 
in  honour  of  Pallas  Athene,  which  Erechtheus  had  founded. 
On  the  island  of  Delos,  where  he  had  landed  on  his  voyage 
from  Crete  to  Athens,  he  founded  the  Delian  festival.  To 
this  feast  the  Athenians  used  to  send  a yearly  embassy  in  a 
ship,  which  tradition  long  held  to  be  the  same  as  that  from 
which  Theseus  had  landed.  He  also  founded  the  Oscho- 
PHORIA  to  Dionysos,  as  husband  of  Ariadne. 

Theseus  lived  to  a great  age,  and  was  slain  by  the  traitor 
Lykomedes  in  the  island  of  Skyros.  His  bones  were  brought 
to  Athens  in  the  time  of  Kimon  and  buried  in  the  city. 
The  Athenians  honoured  him  as  a demigod,  built  a sanctuary 
to  him  and  celebrated  a popular  festival  every  year  in  his 
honour.^ 

lO.  MELEAGROS  AND  THE  KALYDONIAN  BOAR-HUNT. 

Meleagros  was  the  son  of  Omeus^  king  of  Kalydon,  and  of 
Althaia,  He  was  brother  of  Deianeira,  the  wife  of  Herakles. 
Soon  after  his  birth  the  Moirai  appeared  to  Althaia  and 
revealed  to  her  the  fate  of  her  son.  Atropos  said,  He  will 


* See  Plutarch’s  “ Theseus.’ 


VI.J 


THE  KAL  YDONIAN  BOAR 


221 


live  until  that  glowing  brand  on  the  hearth  is  consumed.” 
When  she  heard  this  Althaia  hastily  snatched  the  burning 
log  from  the  flames,  extinguished  it,  and  put  it  in  a place 
of  safety.  Meleagros  grew  to  be  a strong,  vigorous  youth  ; 
he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  and  other 
famous  exploits,  and  no  one  could  wound  him,  but  he  appears 
in  his  most  brilliant  light  as  the  hunter  of  the  Kalydonian 
BOAR.  The  boar,  a huge  powerful  beast,  supposed  to  be  of 
the  race  of  the  sow  of  Krommyon,  whom  Theseus  had  killed, 
was  sent  by  Artemis  to  devastate  the  plains  of  Kalydon 
because  Oineus  had  forgotten  her  when  he  was  sacrificing  to 
all  the  gods.  Many  had  tried  to  catch  or  kill  the  boar,  but 
in  vain,  so  Meleagros  assembled  all  the  best  heroes  of  Greece 
to  hunt  it,  and  promised  that  the  skin  should  be  the  prize  of 
the  slayer.  Idas  and  Lynkeus  came  from  Mykenai,  Kastor 
and  Polydeukes  from  Lakedamion,  Theseus  from  Athens, 
Admetos  from  Pherai,  Ankaios  from  Arkadia,  Jason  from 
lolkos,  Peleus  from  Thessaly  and  many  others.  The 
beautiful  Atalanta  came  with  them. 

“ And  one,  the  maiden  rose  of  all  thy  maids, 

Arcadian  Atalanta,  snowy  souled, 

Fair  as  the  snow  and  footed  as  the  wind, 

From  Ladon  and  well-wooded  Maenalus  ; 

Over  the  firm  hills  and  the  fleeting  sea, 

Hast  thou  drawn  hither,  and  many  an  armed  king, 

Heroes,  the  crown  of  men,  like  gods  in  fight.”  ^ 

For  nine  days  Meleagros  entertained  the  heroes  as  his 
guests,  and  on  the  tenth  they  sallied  forth  to  the  hunt. 
After  many  of  the  brave  hunters,  Ankaios  among  them, 
had  been  killed  by  the  furious  beast,  Atalanta  hit  him 
with  her  arrow,  others  inflicted  more  wounds  and  Melea- 
gros gave  him  the  death-thrust.  The  skin  of  the  boar 

* A.  C.  Swinburne,  “ Atalanta  in  Calydon,” 


222 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


fell  to  him  as  a prize,  but  he  gave  it  as  a love-gift  to 
Atalanta,  who  had  first  touched  the  beast  with  her  arrow. 
The  brothers  of  Althaia  coveted  the  skin,  and  took  it  from 
Atalanta  by  force  on  her  way  back  to  Arkadia.  Meleagros 


came  to  strife  with  them  about  the  matter,  and  slew  them. 
When  Althaia  heard  this  she  threw  the  brand  which  she 
had  so  carefully  preserved  into  the  fire,  and  Meleagros 
immediately  ceased  to  live.  Too  late  did  Althaia  rue  her 


VI.] 


VOYAGE  OF  THE  ARGO 


223 


hasty  act,  and  stabbed  herself  in  remorse.  The  memory  of 
the  brave  hero  Meleagros  was  long  honoured  in  Kalydon. 
(Fig.  46.) 

II.  THE  VOYAGE  OF  THE  ARGO.* 

This  expedition  embraces  a large  number  of  strange  and 
m^arvellous  adventures.  The  leader  was  Jason^  son  of  Aison^ 
king  of  lolkos,  in  Thessaly,  and  of  Alkimede.  Aison’s 
step-brother  Pelias  had  expelled  him  from  his  kingdom  and 
cruelly  persecuted  all  his  family,  but  Jason  was  rescued  by 
some  of  his  father^s  friends  and  brought  to  the  Centaur 
Cheiron  to  be  educated.  When  he  was  twenty  years  old  he 
went  by  command  of  the  Oracle  to  Pelias,  and  asked  him  to 
restore  his  kingdom,  but  Pelias,  too,  had  consulted  an  oracle, 
and  had  heard  that  he  should  be  hurled  from  his  throne  by 
a descendant  of  Aiolos,  Aison’s  father,  who  should  appear 
before  him  with  one  shoe.  Now  Jason,  shortly  before  he 
arrived  at  the  king’s  court,  had  been  met  by  Hera,  in  the 
form  of  an  old  woman,  had  carried  her  across  the  river 
Enipeus,  and  in  doing  so  had  lost  one  of  his  sandals.  So  he 
came  to  court  with  one  shoe,  and  thus  the  oracle  was 
fulfilled.  Pelias  could  not  refuse  to  give  up  the  throne,  but 
he  said  that  Jason  must  first  prove  himself  worthy  to  reign, 
by  sailing  to  Kolchis,  and  bringing  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Jason  agreed,  the  ship  Argo  was  built  and  fitted  out  by  the 
help  of  Hera  and  Athene,  a band  of  brave  warriors  was 
called  to  the  adventure,  and  together  they  sailed  away. 
Almost  all  the  famous  heroes  of  Greece  were  on  board. 
There  were  Herakles^  Kastor  and  Polydeukes^  Meleagros^ 
Orpheus^  Peleus^  father  of  Achilles,  Neleus,  father  of  Nestor, 


^ ( Euripides,  “ Medea”  (A.  VV.  Verrall). 
(Apollonius  Rhodius,  “ Argonautica,” 


224 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Admetos^  Theseus  and  his  friend  Petr  it  hods  ^ the  two  winged 
sons  of  Boreas,  Zetes  and  Kaldis^  and  many  others. 

The  story  of  the  Golden  Fleece  was  this  : Among  the  sons 
of  Aiolos,  son  of  Hellen,  was  one  named  Athamas.  His 
wife  was  Nephele  and  they  had  two  children,  Phrixos  and 
Helle.  After  the  death  of  Nephele,  Athamas  married  Ino^ 
daughter  of  Kadmos,  who  bore  him  Learchos  and  MelikerteSs 
Ino  hated  her  step-children,  and  wished  to  kill  them.  Then 
Phrixos’  mother,  Nephele,  appeared  to  him,  brought  him 
the  ram  of  Hermes,  with  golden  wool,  and  told  him  and 
his  sister  to  mount  it  and  escape  across  the  sea.  The 
children  did  so  ; the  ram  flew  through  the  clouds  with 
them,  and  brought  Phrixos  to  his  journey’s  end  in  safety,  but 
Helle  fell  into  the  sea  and  was  drowned.  The  strait  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  now  called  the  Dardanelles,  received  from 
her  the  name  Hellespont.  As  soon  as  Phrixos  reached 
Kolchis,  on  the  farthest  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  he  sacrificed 
the  ram  as  a thank-offering  to  the  gods,  and  hung  the 
Golden  Fleece  up  in  the  sacred  grove  of  Ares.  Then  he 
became  king,  and  reigned  in  honour  and  prosperity  till  his 
death. 

It  was  this  precious  fleece  which  Jason  was  to  bring  back. 
Before  he  sailed  he  sacrificed  to  Zeus,  and  Zeus  sent  him 
thunder  and  lightning  as  a favourable  omen  for  his  under- 
taking. With  his  companions,  the  Argonauts,  he  went  first 
to  Lemnos,  and  there  found  that  the  women  of  the  island 
had  murdered  their  husbands  at  the  command  of  Aphrodite. 
The  Argonauts  were  received  by  the  women  in  the  place  of 
their  murdered  husbands,  and  from  this  union  sprang  a 
new  heroic  race.  After  spending  some  time  in  ease  and 
enjoyment  the  Argonauts  set  sail  and  landed  in  Kyzikos. 
As  they  were  about  to  start  again,  the  rudder  of  Herakles’ 
ship  broke,  and  he  went  into  the  forest,  accompanied  by  the 


VI.] 


P MINE  US 


225 


beautiful  youth  Hylas^  to  cut  wood  to  make  another 
rudder.  The  forest  nymphs,  charmed  by  the  beauty  of 
Hylas,  carried  him  off.  Herakles  refused  to  leave  the  spot 
until  his  friend  should  be  restored  to  him,  living  or  dead, 
and  the  Argonauts  were  forced  to  sail  away  without  him. 
Their  next  adventure  was  in  the  country  of  the  Bebrykes, 
where  Scutari  now  lies,  opposite  Constantinople.  The  cruel 
and  violent  Amykos^  king  of  the  place,  was  a formidable 
boxer,  and  used  to  compel  all  strangers  who  wished  to 
draw  water  in  the  land  to  contend  with  him.  He  found 
his  match  among  the  Argonauts,  for  Polydeukes^  son  of 
Zeus,  the  first  boxer  of  his  time,  conquered  and  slew  him. 
And  now  the  heroes  were  not  far  from  the  entrance 
to  the  Black  Sea,  which  in  ancient  times  was  considered 
a most  dangerous  passage,  and  which  keeps  this  reputa- 
tion in  modern  days.  The  Argonauts  would  certainly 
have  perished,  if  they  had  not  happened  to  meet  with  one 
who  gave  them  good  advice.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
this  dangerous  strait  ruled  King  Phineiis^  who  knew  all 
about  these  seas.  Phineus  had  done  wrong  to  his  wife,  who 
was  a daughter  of  Boreas,  and  to  their  children.  Therefore 
the  gods  struck  him  blind,  and  sent  Harpies  to  plague  him, 
and  to  snatch  and  defile  his  food  as  soon  as  it  was  placed 
on  the  table.  Zetes  and  Kalais,  the  winged  sons  of  Boreas, 
pursued  the  Harpies  till  they  fell  into  the  sea  and  perished, 
and  as  a mark  of  gratitude,  Phineus  gave  them  instructions 
about  their  voyage.  There  were  two  great  floating  rocks  in 
the  strait,  called  the  Symplegades,  which  always  came 
together  whenever  a ship  or  a living  thing  passed  between 
them,  and  crushed  it  to  atoms.  Phineus  advised  the  heroes 
to  let  a dove  fly  in  front  of  the  Argo  between  the  rocks. 
This  they  did  ; the  rocks  dashed  together  as  the  dove  flew 


* Theokritos,  Idyll  xii. 

16 


226 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap 


through,  and  then  floated  wide  apart.  The  Argonauts 
seized  the  moment  and  steered  their  ship  boldly  and  swiftly 
through,  so  that  when  the  rocks  came  together  again  they 
only  caught  the  very  end  of  the  rudder.  From  that  time  the 
rocks  were  fixed,  and  they  stand  firm -to  this  day.  After 
other  adventures  the  Argonauts  finally  came  to  Kolchis. 

Aietes^  son  of  Helios,  was  king  in  Kolchis,  and  he  would 
not  give  up  the  Golden  Fleece  until  he  had  imposed  on  the 
heroes  many  dangerous  tasks.  But  Medeia^  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  Aietes,  loved  Jason,  and  as  she  knew  the  art  of 
magic,  she  gave  him  a wonderful  ointment  which  made  him 
proof  against  fire  and  sword.  Jason^s  first  task  was  to  yoke 
the  brazen  bulls  of  Hephaistos  to  a brazen  plough,  and  plough 
the  field  of  Ares.  These  bulls  had  never  been  tamed,  and 
they  breathed  fire  from  mouth  and  nostrils.  Fortified  by 
the  magic  ointment,  Jason  seized  the  dreadful  beasts  and 
forced  them  under  the  yoke.  When  the  field  was  all 
ploughed,  Aietes  gave  Jason  a helmet  full  of  dragons^  teeth, 
which  he  was  to  sow  in  the  furrows.  From  these  grew 
up  before  the  evening  an  army  of  brazen  giants  who  rushed 
at  Jason  to  kill  him,  but  Jason,  by  Medeia’s  advice,  threw 
down  a great  stone  among  them  ; the  giants  fought  for  the 
stone  and  slew  each  other.  The  few  who  were  left  alive 
submitted  to  Jason  as  their  lord,  for  his  sword  had  been  so 
hardened  by  the  ointment  that  it  could  cut  through  steel. 
When  Jason  had  fulfilled  all  the  conditions,  Aietes  would 
not  give  up  the  Fleece,  but  by  Medeia’s  magic  art  Jason 
put  the  dragon  to  sleep  who  guarded  the  Fleece,  took  it  from 
the  oak  where  Phrixos  had  hung  it,  and  fled  with  his  com- 
panions. Medeia  went  with  them.  The  king  took  ship, 
sailed  in  pursuit  to  recover  his  daughter,  and  nearly  overtook 
them.  Then  Medeia  slew  her  little  brother,  ApsyrtoSy  who 
was  in  the  ship  with  her,  cut  him  in  pieces  and  threw  the 


VI.] 


MEDEIA 


227 


pieces  into  the  sea.  While  the  distracted  father  .was  looking 
for  the  scattered  limbs  of  his  child  Jason  and  Medeia 
escaped,  and  after  many  wanderings  and  adventures,  came 
to  the  kingdom  of  Pelias.  As  Pelias  still  refused,  although 
all  his  conditions  were  fulfilled,  to  give  Jason  the  throne, 
Medeia  planned  his  death  and  persuaded  his  daughters  to 
become  her  accomplices  in  the  murder.  She  killed  a ram, 
and  boiled  it  in  a cauldron  with  magic  juices,  till  she 
transformed  it  into  a young  living  lamb.  The  daughters 
of  Pelias  put  their  father  into  the  cauldron,  expecting  to 
see  him  become  young  again,  but  as  Medeia  gave  them 
no  magic  juice,  Pelias  perished.  Jason  succeeded  him  as 
King  of  lolkos,  and  also  ruled  over  Corinth,  which  had 
been  the  kingdom  of  Aietes  before  he  went  to  Kolchis. 

After  ten  happy  and  peaceful  years,  Jason  fell  in  love  with 
Kreusa  (or  Glauke)^  a beautiful  princess  of  Corinth,  and 
made  her  his  queen.  Stung  by  jealousy,  Medeia  sent  her 
rival  a poisoned  robe  and  crown,  and  thus  made  an  end  of 
her  life.  She  then  set  fire  to  the  palace  of  Kreon,  her 
father.  When  Jason  was  about  to  take  vengeance  on 
Medeia,  she  slew  her  own  two  children  and  escaped  through 
the  air  in  a chariot  drawn  by  dragons.  One  legend  relates 
that  she  came  to  Athens,  became  the  wife  of  Aigeus  for  a 
short  time,  but  fled  when  her  designs  on  the  life  of  Theseus 
were  discovered,  and  returned  on  her  dragon-car  to  Kolchis. 
Jason  dedicated  the  ship  Ar^o  in  the  sanctuary  of  Poseidon 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  was  about  to  take  refuge 
there  himself,  when  the  back  part  of  the  ship,  having  become 
rotten,  fell  on  him  and  slew  him. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  there  is  a substratum  of  fact  in 
the  myth  of  the  Argo.  The  Golden  Fleece  may  mean  the 
treasure  of  some  distant  prince,  taken  by  the  Greeks  on  one 
of  their  earliest  voyages.  In  later  times  Jason  became  the 


228 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


type  of  selfish  ambition,  using  all  means  to  gain  its  own 
ends.  The  story  of  Jason  and  Medeia  was  a fruitful  one 
for  tragedy,  and  has  been  beautifully  treated  by  Euripides 
in  his  play  of  ‘‘  Medeia.’^ 

III.  THE  AGE  OF  THE  YOUNGER  HEROES.* 

These  were  the  sons  and  grandsons  of  those  heroes  whose 
stories  we  have  already  told.  What  we  have  to  say  of  the 
younger  heroes  circles  round  two  great  events,  which  more 
than  any  other  subjects  were  the  universal  possession  of 
Greek  poetry  : these  are  the  wars  of  Thebes  and  Troy.  The 
Theban  war  is  treated  in  an  old  epic  called  the  Thebais,  by 
an  unknown  author,  and  in  plays,  fragments  of  which  are 
still  extant  ; the  Trojan  war  in  a whole  series  of  epics,  the 
most  important  of  which,  Homer’s  Iliad,  has  come  down  to 
us  complete. 

I.  The  Attack  on  Thebes  by  the  Seven  Heroes  and 
THEIR  Sons  the  Epigoni.^ 

We  have  told  how  (Edipus^  by  the  dark  decrees  of  fate, 
came  to  the  throne  of  Thebes,  and  how  he  married  his  own 
mother,  locaste^  after  being  unwittingly  the  murderer  of  his 
father.  He  had  by  locaste  four  children  : two  sons,  Eteokles 
and  Polyneikes^  and  two  daughters,  Antigone  and  Ismene. 
When  the  terrible  wrong  was  discovered,  locaste  slew 
herself,  and  (Edipus  put  out  his  eyes  and  went  into  exile 
attended  by  his  faithful  daughter  Antigone,  who  would  not 
leave  him.  The  sons  remained  in  Thebes,  with  the  weight 

* Johannes  Overbeck,  “ Die  Bildwerke  zum  thebischen  und  troischen 
Heldenkreis.” 

YE^chylus,  “ The  Seven  Against  Thebes  ” (A.  W.  Verrall). 

® • QEdipus  Coloneus. 

Sophocles,  “ Antigone.” 


VI.] 


THE  ATTACK  ON  THEBES 


229 


of  their  father’s  curse  on  them,  and  fell  at  variance  about 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  At  last  they  agreed  to  rule 
alternately,  each  for  a year  at  a time,  and  accordingly  the 
eldest,  Eteokles,  ascended  the  throne.  But  when  his  year 
was  out  he  refused  to  hand  over  the  sceptre  to  his  brother, 
and  drove  him  away  by  force. 

Polyneikes  resolved  to  have  revenge,  and  coming  to  King 
Adrastos  in  Sikyon,  he  there  found  another  exiled  prince, 
Tydeus  of  Argos.  The  two  young  warriors  made  a compact 
of  friendship,  and  each  swore  to  help  the  other  to  regain 
his  right.  King  Adrastos,  whose  two  daughters  they  had 
married,  joined  their  alliance,  and  collected  a mighty  army 
to  restore  Polyneikes  to  Thebes  and  Tydeus  to  Argos. 

The  two  heroes  themselves  went  about  Greece  to  collect 
allies,  and  many  a brave  warrior  obeyed  their  summons. 
Kapaneus  came,  son  of  Hipponoos  of  Argos,  Eteokles^  son  of 
Iphis,  Parthenopaios^  son  of  Atalanta  and  Milanion  or  Ares, 
and  the  seer  Amphiaraos^  son  of  Oikles  or  Apollo.  Amphi- 
araos  was  a descendant  of  the  prophet  Melampus,  and  had 
inherited  the  power  of  seeing  the  future.  He  knew  that  all 
the  leaders  were  impious  men,  that  Polyneikes  was  acting 
contrary  to  the  will  of  the  gods  in  leading  an  army  against 
his  brother  and  his  native  town,  and  that  the  campaign 
would  come  to  naught.  Amphiaraos  therefore  refused  to  go 
with  the  army,  and  prophesied  a mournful  doom  to  the  othei 
leaders.  They,  however,  took  no  heed  of  his  warnings,  and, 
being  anxious  for  his  presence  among  them,  they  had  recourse 
to  stratagem.  Eriphyle,^  sister  of  Adrastos,  was  wife  to  Am- 
phiaraos. The  two  brothers-in-law  agreed  to  refer  the  dispute 
as  to  whether  Amphiaraos  was  to  go  to  the  war  or  not  to 
the  decision  of  Eriphyle.  Polyneikes  bribed  her  with  a 
necklace  to  decide  against  her  husband’s  wish,  although  she 


* “ Mythology  and  Monuments,  Athens,”  J.  E.  H.  Div.  A,  Sect.  iv. 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


lyi 

knew  that  none  of  the  heroes  who  marched  against  Thebes, 
except  Adrastos,  were  to  come  back  alive.  Amphiaraos 
cursed  his  wife  before  he  took  the  field,  and  this  curse  was 
fulfilled  by  their  son  Alkmaion^  who  slew  his  mother  to 
avenge  the  betrayal  of  his  father. 

And  now  the  army  was  ready  to  march.  But  before  we 
tell  of  what  befel  it,  let  us  turn  for  a moment  to  (Edipus. 
He  wandered  about  Greece  in  sorrow  and  misery,  his 
daughter  Antigone  his  only  companion,  and  at  last  came  tc 
Attica,  where  the  oracle  had  said  he  should  find  rest  from 
his  griefs.  His  sons,  who  had  neglected  him  hitherto,  now 
were  told  by  an  oracle  that  the  one  who  should  bring  QEdi- 
pus  to  Thebes  should  be  the  conqueror.  Polyneikes  there- 
fore came  to  (Edipus  in  person  and  begged  for  his  blessing 
on  the  campaign  against  Thebes,  but  (Edipus  cursed  him 
for  his  impious  undertaking.  Eteokles  sent  his  mother’s 
brother  Kreon  to  Attica,  commanding  him  to  bring  (Edipus 
without  fail  to  Thebes.  Kreon  tried  to  fulfil  this  mission, 
but  Theseus  interfered  and  expelled  him  and  his  followers. 
So  it  happened  that  (Edipus  met  his  death  in  the  grove  of 
the  Eumenides  at  Kolonos,  near  Athens,  after  cursing  his 
undutiful  sons  once  more,  and  prophesying  that  they  should 
slay  each  other.  When  Theseus  had  buried  (Edipus  with 
due  rites,  Antigone  returned  to  Thebes  deeply  mourning. 

And  now  the  heroes  marched  against  Thebes.  When 
they  reached  Nemea  they  found  that  Dionysos  had  worked 
a miracle  and  dried  up  all  the  springs,  so  that  they  were 
parched  with  thirst.  In  their  distress  they  met  with  HypsT 
pyle^  the  beloved  of  Jason,  whom  the  Lemnian  women  out 
of  jealousy  had  sold  as  a slave  to  King  Lykourgos  of  Nemea, 
and  who  had  become  nurse  to  the  king’s  infant  son,  Opheltes. 
The  heroes  begged  the  woman  to  show  them  a spring  ; she 
was  ready  to  do  so,  and  laid  the  child  Opheltes  down  on  the 


VI.] 


ARCHEMOROS 


231 


ground  in  a wood  till  she  should  return.  When  they  looked 
for  the  child  again  they  found  that  a snake  had  coiled  round 
him  and  killed  him.  Tydeus  and  Kapaneus  wished  to  slay 
the  beast,  but  Amphiaraos  told  them  that  it  was  sent  as  an 
evil  omen  from  Zeus,  and  called  the  child  “ Archemoros  ” 
(the  beginning  of  destiny).  The  leaders  of  the  army  appeased 
the  parents’  anger  by  instituting  brilliant  funeral  Games  in 
honour  of  the  child,  which  were  afterwards  developed  into 
the  Nemean  Games.  Hypsipyle  was  restored  to  her  native 
country  by  her  son  Euneos. 

In  spite  of  the  evil  omen,  the  army  marched  on,  and  soon 
arrived  at  the  town  of  Thebes.  The  camp  was  pitched,  but 
before  beginning  hostilities  Tydeus  was  sent  as  envoy  to  the 
town  to  demand  that  Polyneikes  should  be  reinstated  as 
king.  Tydeus  met  with  a treacherous  reception,  for  Eteokles, 
contrary  to  every  law  of  right  and  honour,  caused  an  ambush 
of  fifty  men  to  lie  in  wait  for  him.  He  slew  the  whole  fifty 
except  one,  who  escaped  and  told  the  tale  to  Eteokles. 

Arms  must  now  decide  the  question.  Thebes  was  closely 
blockaded,  and  the  seven  generals  took  up  their  posts  before 
the  seven  gates  of  the  town.  Seven  leaders  from  the  city 
opposed  them,  each  with  his  squadron,  Eteokles  himself 
leading  the  body  of  men  which  was  to  attack  Polyneikes. 
Great  deeds  of  bravery  were  performed  by  the  heroes  on 
both  sides.  But  the  gods  were  against  the  besiegers’  army, 
and  favoured  the  Thebans,  because,  at  the  command  of  the 
seer  Teiresias,  Kreon’s  son  Menoikeus  had  freely  offered  his 
life  as  a sacrifice  for  his  native  country.  On  the  morning  of 
the  decisive  battle,  Amphiaraos  again  warned  the  besieging 
generals  of  their  approaching  defeat,  and  the  death  of  all 
except  Adrastos.  They  therefore  gave  to  Adrastos  keep- 
sakes for  their  families  at  home,  and  went  to  the  attack  with 
the  courage  of  despair. 


232 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


At  first  Thebes  had  the  worst  of  the  struggle.  Kapaneus, 
who  had  grimly  determined  to  take  Thebes  in  spite  of  omens 
and  the  will  of  Zeus,  had  already  mounted  the  scaling-ladder 
on  the  walls,  when  Zeus  himself  hurled  him  down  with  his 
thunderbolt.  The  Thebans  thereupon  made  a general  sally, 
which  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Argive  army 
and  the  death  of  the  leaders.  Eteokles  and  Polyneikes 
stabbed  each  other  in  single  fight,  Amphiaraos  was  swallowed 
up  in  a cleft  of  the  earth  and  became  an  underworld  daemon 
and  giver  of  oracles  ; only  Adrastos  escaped  on  the  winged 
horse  Arion. 

The  rule  in  Thebes  passed  to  Kreon,  uncle  of  Eteokles  and 
Polyneikes.  He  caused  Eteokles  to  be  buried  with  due 
funeral  rites,  but  forbade,  on  pain  of  death,  that  any  one 
should  pay  the  like  honour  to  Polyneikes.  The  noble 
maiden,  Antigone,  determined  to  disobey  Kreon^s  command, 
for  her  brother’s  unburied  ghost  was  wandering  the  earth 
and  could  not  find  rest  in  the  underworld.  She  secretly 
buried  the  body  of  her  unhappy  brother,  and  was  taken  in 
the  act  by  the  guards  of  Kreon.  Although  she  was  the 
affianced  bride  of  Haimon^  Kreon’s  son,  who  begged 
earnestly  for  her  life,  she  was  doomed  to  be  buried  alive. 
She  was  shut  up  in  an  underground  vault,  and  hanged  her- 
self rather  than  undergo  death  by  slow  starvation.  Haimon 
slew  himself  in  despair,  and  Kreon  atoned  for  his  cruelty  by 
the  desolation  of  his  house.  So  ended  the  race  of  CEdipus. 

Thirty  years  later  the  sons  of  the  seven  generals  of  the 
Argive  army  made  a second  attack  on  Thebes  to  avenge  the 
death  of  their  fathers.  This  campaign  is  known  as  the  war 
of  the  Epigoni  or  descendants.  The  gods  favoured  the 
attacking  force,  Thebes  was  destroyed,  and  for  a long  time 
only  an  uri walled  village,  called  Lower  Thebes,  stood  on  the 
former  site  of  the  city. 


vl] 


THE  TROJAN  WAR 


233 


2.  Troy  and  the  Trojan  War.* 

(a)  The  Cause  of  the  War. 

At  the  time  when  Thebes  was  taken  by  the  Epigoni,  King 
Priamos  was  reigning  in  Troy  or  Ilion,  the  chief  city  of  a 
beautiful  tract  of  country  on  the  Hellespont.  His  queen  was 
Hekabe^  and  they  had  many  famous  sons.  Hekabe,  being 
about  to  bring  forth  another  child,  dreamed  that  she  gave 
birth  to  a firebrand.  This  dream  was  interpreted  to  mean 
that  the  child  should  destroy  the  city.  When  a boy  was 
born,  the  parents  exposed  him  in  order  to  escape  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  oracle,  but  he  was  saved  by  some  shepherds, 
who  brought  him  up  in  obscure  rural  fashion  as  one  of  them- 
selves. He  was  called  Paris  or  Alexandros.  One  day,  while 
he  was  feeding  his  flocks,  the  three  goddesses,  Hera,  Athene 
and  Aphrodite,  appeared  before  him  and  demanded  that  he 
should  award  the  prize  of  beauty.  We  have  already  told  how 
Themis  had  prophesied  to  Zeus  when  he  loved  Thetis  that  the 
son  of  Thetis  should  be  greater  than  his  father,  and  how  the 
gods  thereupon  resolved  that  the  sea-goddess  should  be  married 
to  a mortal.  King  Peleus  of  Phthia  in  Thessaly  was  the  chosen 
mortal  whose  piety  had  made  him  worthy  of  this  honour. 
Thetis  long  resisted  the  wooing  of  PeleuSy  but  Peleus  over- 
came her  unwillingness,  and  when  the  marriage  took  place 
all  the  gods  came  to  the  wedding  feast,  as  they  had  done  to 
that  of  Kadmos  and  Harmonia.  But  Eris,  the  goddess  of 


/Karl  Robert,  Bild  iind  Lied.” 

H.  Luckenbach,  Das  Verhaltniss  der  griechischen  Vasenbilder  zu 
den  Gedichten  des  epischen  Kyklos. 

J D.  B.  Munro,  On  the  Fragment  of  Proclus’  abstract  of  the  Epic 
I Cycle  contained  in  the  Codex  Venetus  of  the  Iliad  (in  'Journa 
of  Hellenic  Studies^  vol.  iv.). 

The  poems  of  the  Epic  Cycle  (Ibid.,  vol.  v.). 

'F.  G.  Welcker,  “ Der  epische  Cyklus,”  2 Thle.,  2nd  Auflage. 


234 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


discord,  had  not  been  invited,  and  in  order  to  show  her  spite 
by  disturbing  peace,  she  threw  down  on  the  table  at  the 
banquet  a golden  apple ^ with  the  writing  on  it,  “To  the 
fairest.”  Hera,  Aphrodite,  and  Athene  all  claimed  the 
apple,  and  Zeus  gave  to  Paris  the  right  of  awarding  the 
prize.  Therefore  the  goddesses  appeared  before  the  shep- 
herd of  Ida,  to  hear  his  decision.  At  first  he  kept  silence. 
Then  the  goddesses  promised  him  gifts — Hera,  power  and 
worldly  glory,  Athene,  renown  in  war,  and  Aphrodite,  the 
fairest  wife  in  Greece.  So  Paris  gave  the  prize  to  Aphrodite, 
and  thereby  drew  down  upon  himself,  his  race,  and  his  native 
town  the  bitter  enmity  of  Hera  and  Athene. 

Meanwhile  it  happened  that  two  sons  of  Priamos,  Hektor 
and  Helenos,  went  out  to  the  mountains  to  bring  home  oxen 
for  a great  sacrifice  in  the  royal  palace  of  Troy.  Seeing  a 
beautiful  bull,  the  favourite  of  Paris,  they  led  it  away,  but 
Paris  was  angry,  and  followed  them  to  the  town  to  demand 
it  back  from  the  king  himself.  The  brothers  resisted  and  a 
quarrel  arose,  in  which  Paris  would  have  been  killed  if  the 
prophetess  Kassandra,  dowered  by  Apollo  with  knowledge 
of  hidden  things,  had  not  interfered  and  made  him  known 
to  his  brothers.  Paris  was  welcomed  back  to  the  palace  ; all 
rejoiced  to  see  how  tall  and  fair  and  stately  he  had  grown, 
and  the  oracle  of  the  firebrand  was  forgotten. 

Thus  the  shepherd  became  a prince,  lived  a pleasant  life 
at  the  court  of  Priamos,  and  almost  forgot  that  Aphrodite 
had  promised  him  the  fairest  wife  in  Greece.  But  the  god- 
dess remembered  her  words  and  took  care  for  their  fulfilment. 
She  commanded  Paris  to  sail  to  Hellas,  and  there  find  his  wife. 
So  Paris  set  sail,  taking  with  him  Aineias  (^neas),  son  of 
Aphrodite  and  Anchises.  He  landed  in  Amyklai  and  the 

* J.  E.  Harrison,  “The  Judgment  of  Paris”  {Journal  of  HellenU 
Studies^  1886). 


VI.] 


PARIS  AND  HELENA 


^35 


Dioskouroi  received  him.  These  were  Kastor  and  Polydeukes^ 
sons  of  Zeus  and  Leda^  and  brothers  of  Helena  and  Klytaim- 
nestra,  Kastor  and  Klytaimnestra  were  mortal,  Polydeukes 
and  Helena  immortal.  Paris  remained  for  a short  time  with 
the  Dioskouroi,  and  then  went  with  his  followers  to  Sparta, 
where  he  was  received  with  the  same  kindness  by  Menelaos 
the  king  and  Helena  his  wife.  The  beauty  and  grace  of 
Helena  were  so  extraordinary  that  even  as  a child  she  set  all 
hearts  on  fire.  When  she  was  grown  she  was  wooed  by  so 
many  and  such  powerful  princes  of  Greece,  that  her  foster- 
father,  Tyndareus,  husband  of  Leda,  feared  to  give  her  hand 
to  one  of  them,  lest  he  should  make  all  the  others  his 
enemies.  He  therefore  left  the  choice  to  Helena  herself, 
and  bound  all  her  suitors  by  a great  oath  not  only  to  abide 
by  her  decision,  but  faithfully  to  help  and  serve  her  chosen 
husband  in  all  his  exploits.  Helena  chose  the  noble  prince 
Menelaos,  brother  of  Klytaimnestra’s  husband,  Agamemnon, 
and  their  marriage  was  celebrated  with  great  splendour. 
But  Tyndareus  forgot  to  sacrifice  to  Aphrodite,  and  the 
goddess  avenged  this  neglect  by  making  the  daughters  of 
Tyndareus  the  prey  of  lawless  passion. 

Helena  and  Paris  fell  in  love  at  their  first  meeting,  and 
Paris  further  gained  Helena’s  favour  by  the  precious  gifts 
which  he  brought  her  from  the  East.  But  they  hid  their 
passion  so  craftily  that  Menelaos  had  no  suspicion,  and  even 
went  on  a journey  to  the  court  of  Idomenens^  king  of  Krete, 
leaving  the  dangerous  guest  behind. 

Menelaos  had  scarcely  sailed  when  the  Dioskouroi  became 
involved  in  a contest  which  was  to  cost  them  their  life. 
They  wooed  the  daughters  of  Leukippos^  Hilaira  and  Phoebe^ 
who  were  affianced  to  Idas  and  Lynkeus^  sons  of  Aphareus. 
A struggle  ensued,  and  Kastor,  the  mortal  brother,  killed 
Lynkeus,  and  was  himself  slain  by  Idas.  Polydeukes,  after 


236 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


avenging  the  death  of  Kastor,  implored  Zeus  to  permit  him 
to  share  his  immortality  with  his  brother,  that  he  might  not 
have  to  live  without  him.  Zeus  granted  him  his  request, 
and  the  Dioskouroi  lived  on  alternate  days  as  demigods, 
specially  revered  as  the  helpers  of  mariners,  and  manifesting 
their  presence  by  the  electric  fire  sometimes  to  be  seen  at  the 
mast-head  of  a ship  sailing  during  a storm. 

As  soon  as  Paris  was  left  alone  with  Helena  he  persuaded 
her  to  flee  with  him,  and  become  his  bride  in  the  royal  city 
of  Troy. 

“And,  leaving  to  her  townsmen  throngs  a-spread 
With  shields,  and  spear-thrusts  of  sea-armament, 

And  bringing  Ilion,  in  a dowry’s  stead, 

Destruction — swiftly  through  the  gates  she  went, 

Daring  the  undareable.  ” ^ 

They  fled  secretly  at  night,  and  were  treacherous  enough 
to  take  with  them  rich  treasures  belonging  to  the  noble 
Menelaos.  In  spite  of  a terrible  storm  sent  by  Hera,  the 
Argive  goddess  of  marriage,  they  came  safely  to  Troy,  and 
their  marriage  was  celebrated  in  pomp  and  splendour.  But 
evil  days  were  to  folio w.^ 

“I  had  great  beauty  : ask  thou  not  my  namo  ; 

No  one  can  be  more  wise  than  destiny. 

Many  drew  swords  and  died.  Where’er  I came 

I brought  calamity.  ” 3 

(h)  Preparations  for  the  Trojan  war. 

The  long-forgotten  oracle  about  Paris  was  now  to  be  ful- 
filled, and  Troy  was  to  be  destroyed.  Iris,  the  messenger  of 
the  gods,  brought  to  Menelaos  news  of  the  misfortune  and 

* R.  Browning. 

® Andrew  Lang,  “Helen  of  Troy.” 

3 Tennyson. 


VI.] 


ODYSSEUS 


237 


shame  which  had  befallen  him.  He  quickly  returned  home, 
and,  after  taking  council  with  his  brother  Agamemnon, 
went  to  Pylos  to  consult  the  aged  King  Nestor,  who  had  seen 
two  generations  pass,  and  had  been  a powerful  hero  in  his 
time,  and  who  now  towered  among  the  younger  warriors  like  a 
sacred  monument  commemorating  older  and  stronger  days. 
He  was  rich  in  experience  and  advice,  and  would  communi- 
cate his  knowledge  in  sweet-sounding  talk,  sometimes  a little 
garrulous,  as  is  the  manner  of  old  men.  Nester  told  Mene- 
laos  that  a general  armament  of  all  Greece  was  the  only 
means  of  recovering  his  wife,  Helena. 

So  the  two  heroes  made  a progress  throughout  Greece, 
summoning  all  princes  and  nobles  to  a war  of  revenge  against 
Troy.  Many  of  these,  as  former  suitors  of  Helena,  were 
bound  by  their  oath  to  follow  Menelaos,  others  joined  him 
from  a feeling  of  knightly  loyalty,  or  from  love  of  adventure. 
All  were  deeply  enraged  by  the  crime  of  Paris,  which  they 
condemned  as  breach  of  faith,  seduction,  theft  and  dishonour 
of  the  Greek  name.  When  the  great  army  had  come  to- 
gether, only  two  illustrious  heroes  were  lacking,  Odysseus 
and  Achilleus.  Their  aid  could  by  no  means  be  dispensed 
with.  Odysseus,  the  craftiest  of  all  the  princes,  son  of  Laertes 
and  king  of  Ithaka,  was  married  to  Penelope^  the  beautiful 
and  wise  daughter  of  Ikarios^  and  one  of  the  noblest  and 
purest  figures  in  Grecian  story.  He  had  one  infant  son  named 
Telemachos,  Being  unwilling  to  exchange  settled  peace 
and  domestic  happiness  for  the  uncertainties  of  a doubtful 
campaign,  he  had  recourse  to  a stratagem  when  an  embassy 
came  to  summon  him  ; he  feigned  madness,  but  Palamedes^ 
who  was  as  crafty  as  himself,  discovered  the  trick.  Odysseus 
was  forced  to  join  the  expedition,  but  he  swore  to  be  revenged 
on  Palamedes. 

Achilleus  (Achilles),  son  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  was  fated, 


238 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


according  to  a prophecy  delivered  to  his  mother,  to  live  a 
long  and  inglorious,  or  a short  and  famous  life.  His  mother 
had  chosen  the  former  lot  for  him,  and  she  hid  him,  disguised 
in  women’s  clothes,  among  the  daughters  of  King  Lykomedes 
on  the  island  of  Skyros.  Here  Achilles  won  the  love  of  Deida- 
whose  son,  Neoptolemos^  was  one  day  to  appear  before 
Troy  and  avenge  the  death  of  his  father.  It  was  Odysseus  who 
succeeded  in  tracking  the  son  of  Peleus,  and  persuading  him 
to  join  the  campaign.  He  landed  on  the  island  of  Skyros 
with  other  heroes,  disguised  as  traders,  and  offered  to  the 
daughters  of  Lykomedes  all  kinds  of  ornaments  for  sale. 
The  maidens  eagerly  took  the  ornaments  in  their  hands,  but 
Achilles  showed  indifference  ; however,  when  Odysseus  sud- 
denly brought  out  a suit  of  armour  and  made  warlike  music 
play,  Achilles  was  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  the  fight,  seized 
his  arms  and  could  no  longer  be  held  back  from  the  campaign. 

After  the  heroes  had  said  farewell  to  their  families  and 
friends,  they  all  assembled  in  Aulis.  Peleus,  being  anxious 
about  his  son’s  safety,  had  sent  Patroklos^  son  of  Menoitios,  to 
accompany  him. 

Never  had  Greece  seen  so  large  an  armament  ; more  than 
a thousand  ships  lay  in  the  bay  of  Aulis,  and  on  board  of  each 
were  more  than  a hundred  warriors.  Agamemnon  was  made 
general  and  had  to  offer  sacrifice,  for  he  was  the  mightiest 
prince  of  Greece,  ruling  over  Argos  and  the  islands,  and 
holding  a sceptre  derived  from  Zeus  himself. 

(c)  The  Events  at  the  beginning  of  the  War,^ 

While  the  great  army  was  waiting  at  Aulis  an  omen 


(Euripides,  “ Iphigenia  in  Tauris.” 

E.  Hesselmeyer,  “ Die  Urspriinge  der  Stadt  Pergamos.’* 

L.  A.  Milani,  “II  Mito  di  Filottete  ” in  “ Publicazioni  del  R 
Istituto  di  Studi  Speriori.”  (Sezoine  di  filosofia  e filologia.) 


VI.] 


IPHIGENIA 


239 


happened  and  was  interpreted  by  the  soothsayer  Kalchas.  A 
sparrow  had  her  nest  with  nine  young  ones  on  a plane  tree  ; 
a serpent  wound  round  the  tree  * devoured  the  young  birds 
and  their  mother,  and  was  afterwards  changed  into  stone. 
Kalchas  said,  “ Nine  years  the  Greeks  shall  besiege  Ilion,  and 
in  the  tenth  the  town  shall  be  taken.”  ^ The  fleet  sailed,  but 
the  Greeks  did  not  know  the  way  to  Troy,  and  landed  in 
Mysia  by  mistake,  thinking  it  was  Trojan  territory.  There 
they  laid  waste  the  land.  The  king,  Telephos^  son  of 
Herakles,  hastened  down  to  the  shore,  and  succeeded  in 
driving  the  Greeks  back  to  their  ships.  In  this  skirmish 
Patroklos  fought  bravely  by  Achilles^  sid.e  and  was 
wounded.  Achilles,  who  had  learned  the  healing  art  from 
Cheironon  Mount  Pelion,  bound  up  his  wound,  and  formed  a 
fast  friendship  with  him  which  lasted  to  their  life’s  end.  Thus 
Telephos  delayed  the  attack  on  Troy,  and  the  fleet  of  the 
Greeks  returned  to  the  harbour  of  Aulis.  But  he  himself  had 
been  wounded  by  the  spear  of  Achilles,  and  the  wound 
would  not  heal.  An  oracle  told  him  that  he  must  be  cured 
by  the  man  who  had  dealt  the  blow,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  Greeks  were  told  that  Telephos  was  to  be  their  guide 
to  Troy.  We  must  now  return  to  the  Greeks  at  Aulis. 

During  the  second  delay  Agamemnon  met  a beautiful 
stag  sacred  to  Artemis  ; in  the  eagerness  of  the  chase  he 
impiously  killed  the  sacred  beast,  and  then  boasted  that  he 
was  a more  skilful  hunter  than  the  goddess  herself.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  a series  of  terrible  misfortunes  for  him- 
self and  the  Greeks.  The  offended  goddess  sent  a complete 
calm,  which  stayed  the  fleet  from  week  to  week,  and  although 
Palamedes  invented  dice  and  other  amusements  for  the 
heroes  in  camp,  this  enforced  inactivity  weighed  heavily  on 
their  spirits,  the  more  so  as  no  one  knew  when  it  would  end. 


* Thraemer,  “Pergamos.” 


240 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Discontent  arose,  and  there  was  some  risk  that  the  whole 
expedition  would  be  given  up. 

Then  the  soothsayer  Kalchas  told  Agamemnon  that 
Artemis  demanded  the  sacrifice  of  his  daughter  Iphigenia, 
There  was  a dreadful  conflict  in  the  breast  of  Agamemnon 
between  fatherly  affection  and  duty  to  the  army,  but  the 
latter  triumphed,  and  he  sent  for  his  wife  Klytaimnestra  and 
his  daughter  Iphigenia  to  Aulis,  under  the  pretext  that  the 
maiden  was  to  be  married  to  Achilles.  As  soon  as  they 
arrived  preparations  were  made  for  the  sacrifice,  and  Iphi- 
genia was  led  to  the  altar. 

“ The  high  masts  flickered  as  they  lay  afloat ; 

The  crowds,  the  temples,  waver’d,  and  the  shore  ; 

The  bright  death  quivered  at  the  victim’s  throat  ; 

Touched,  and  I knew  no  more.”  ^ 

Artemis,  appeased  by  this  proof  of  Agamemnon’s  submis- 
sion, placed  a white  doe  in  the  maiden’s  stead  at  the  altar, 
and  carried  Iphigenia  away  to  Tauris,  where  she  made  her 
priestess  in  her  temple.  But  Klytaimnestra  never  forgot  the 
deceit  her  husband  had  practised  on  her. 

When  all  was  ready  for  the  second  start,  Telephos,  the 
leader  whom  the  Oracle  had  promised,  came  to  Aulis  to  find 
healing  for  his  wound.  He  entered  the  camp  in  disguise, 
seized  Agamemnon’s  little  son  Orestes,  who  had  come  with 
his  mother,  and  threatened  to  kill  him  unless  he  could  find  a 
cure.  Odysseus  interposed,  some  rust  from  Achilles’  spear 
was  brought,  the  wound  was  healed,  and  Telephos  declared 
his  readiness  to  pilot  the  fleet  to  Troy.  Accordingly  the 
heroes  set  sail  again,  and  on  the  way  they  landed  on  the 
island  of  Lemnos  to  sacrifice  to  Herakles.  Here  Philoktetes,* 
to  whom  Herakles  had  left  his  bows  and  arrows,  was  bitten 

* A.  Tennyson. 

® L.  A.  Milani,  “ II  Mito  di  Filottete*” 


^ ^ ^ 


VI.]  FIRST  YEAR  OF  THE  SIEGE  2L\ 

by  a serpent.  As  the  wound  would  not  heal,  and  diffused  an 
evil  odour,  Philoktetes  was  left  behind  alone  on  the  barren 
coast  of  Lemnos,  abandoned  to  disease  and  misery  and  his 
own  revengeful  and  angry  feelings.* *  The  fleet  sailed  on  and 
soon  reached  the  Trojan  coast. 

(d)  The  First  Year  of  the  Siege, 

The  Trojans  had  been  warned  of  the  approach  of  the 
Greeks  in  time  to  collect  a large  army  from  the  neighbouring 
districts  and  to  fortify  their  city,  so  that  they  were  in  a 
position  to  offer  formidable  resistance  to  the  invaders.  As 
King  Priamos  was  too  old  to  go  to  war  himself,  his  eldest 
son,  Hektor^  took  the  chief  command.  As  soon  as  the  Greek 
fleet  approached  the  shore  the  Trojan  army  drew  up  to 
resist  them,  but  the  Greeks  landed  in  spite  of  their  resistance, 
and  drove  them  back  to  their  city,  though  not  without  loss 
to  themselves.  Then  the  Greeks,  with  Achilles  at  their 
head,  made  an  attack  on  the  city,  but  this  was  unsuccessful. 
Their  demand  that  Helena  should  be  restored  to  her 
husband  was  refused,  and  nothing  remained  for  them  to  do 
but  to  build  an  entrenched  camp  all  round  the  ships  on  the 
beach.  Two  things  were  now  plain  : that  Ilion  could  not 
be  taken  by  storm,  and  that  on  the  open  plain  the  Greeks 
would  have  the  advantage — hence  for  a long  tirhe  there 
was  no  pitched  battle  between  the  armies.  One  single 
combat,  between  Achilles  and  Hektor,  took  place,  without 
decisive  result ; Achilles  captured  and  killed  Priamos’ 
youngest  son,  Troilos  ; the  Greeks  wasted  the  Trojan  terri- 
tory, and  destroyed  the  neighbouring  small  towns. 

At  the  sack  of  one  of  these  towns,  named  Pedasos,  Aga- 
memnon received  as  prize  of  honour  the  beautiful  maiden 

* Sophocles,  “ Philoktetes.” 

* In  Studniczka’s  “Kyrene,”  Ferd.  Diimmler’s  “Anhang”on  Hektor. 

17 


242 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


Chryseis^  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest  of  Apollo  on  the  island 
of  Chryse,  while  to  Achilles’  share  fell  the  no  less  lovely 
Briseis,  These  two  maidens  were  to  be  the  occasion  of 
deadly  strife  between  Agamemnon  and  Achilles.  Chryses 
came  to  the  Grecian  camp  to  olfer  a rich  ransom  for  his 
daughter,  but  Agamemnon  refused  to  give  her  up,  and  drove 
the  priest  away  with  insulting  words.  Then  Chryses  prayed 
to  his  god  Apollo,  and  the  god,  already  inclined  to  the 
Trojan  side  and  hostile  to  the  Greeks,  heard  his  prayer,  shot 
his  arrows  against  the  Greeks,  and  smote  them  with  pesti- 
lence, so  that  many  died.  Agamemnon  assembled  the  army, 
and  asked  Kalchas,  the  seer,  how  he  should  appease  the  god. 
After  placing  himself  under  the  protection  of  Achilles, 
Kalchas  revealed  to  the  king  that  Apollo  was  angry  because 
of  the  insult  to  his  priest,  and  could  only  be  appeased  by  the 
restoration  of  Chryseis.  Agamemnon,  who  already  bore 
Kalchas  a grudge  for  his  prophecy  about  Iphigenia,  suspected 
collusion  between  him  and  Achilles.  He  could  not  refuse 
to  give  up  the  maiden,  but  he  heaped  abuse  on  Achilles 
and  the  seer.  Achilles  could  not  calmly  bear  these  taunts  ; 
he  became  violently  enraged,  and  would  have  attacked  the 
king  had  not  Athene  herself  held  him  back^  Agamemnon, 
being  touched  in  his  honour  by  the  loss  of  his  prize, 
announced  his  intention  of  taking  Briseis  from  Achilles, 
whereupon  Achilles  declared  that  from  that  hour  neither 
he  nor  any  of  his  men  would  take  part  in  the  war.  He  held 
to  his  resolve,  and  when  Briseis  was  given  to  Agamemnon 
he  withdrew  from  the  army  and  remained  in  his  tent.  But 
his  mother  Thetis  begged  Zeus  to  make  Agamemnon  and 
the  Greeks  suffer  for  this  wrong  done  to  her  son.  Zeus 
granted  her  request,  and  promised  that  the  Greek  cause 


* See  “Lesbiaka,’^  by  K.  Tiimpel,  in  Philologus  (Neue  Folge),  vols. 
48  and  49. 


VI.] 


WRATH  OF  ACHILLES 


243 


should  suffer  while  Achilles  remained  away.*  As  soon  as 
the  Trojans  knew  that  the  formidable  hero  had  left  the 
army,  they  ventured  out  of  their  city  and  attacked  the 
Greeks  on  the  plain.  In  many  conflicts  the  Greeks  had  the 
worst,  and  after  most  of  their  heroes,  Agamemnon  not 
excepted,  had  been  wounded,  they  were  besieged  in  their 
entrenched  camp  by  the  Trojans.  Agamemnon,  in  this 
extremity,  resolved  to  humble  himself  to  Achilles.^  He 
sent  an  embassy  of  noble  princes,  and  promised  to  restore 
Briseis  and  to  give  him  one  of  his  own  daughters  in 
marriage,  with  seven  cities  as  her  dowry,  if  he  would  again 
aid  the  Greeks.  But  it  was  in  vain  ; Achilles  refused  the 
gifts.  This  inexorable  behaviour  threw  the  Greeks  into  the 
greatest  despair  ; but  it  was  to  bring  its  own  punishment. 

When  the  affairs  of  the  Greeks  were  so  desperate  that 
Hektor  had  stormed  the  wall  round  their  camp,  and  was  just 
about  to  hurl  burning  torches  among  their  ships, 3 Patroklos 
was  smitten  with  pity  for  his  countrymen,  and  begged 
Achilles  to  lend  him  his  armour  and  allow  him  to  lead  his 
men  into  the  fight.  Achilles  agreed,  and  Patroklos,  with 
the  Myrmidons,  succeeded  in  striking  terror  into  the  hearts 
of  the  Trojans  and  driving  them  back  from  the  rampart. 
Patroklos,  instead  of  returning  as  Achilles  had  advised 
him,  pursued  the  Trojans  nearly  to  the  walls  of  Troy. 
There  Hektor  engaged  him  in  single  combat  and  slew  him. 
The  Greeks  fought  for  his  corpse  and  recovered  it,  but 
Hektor  seized  the  armour  of  Achilles  as  his  spoil. 

The  grief  of  Achilles  about  his  friend  was  as  violent  and 
unrestrained  as  his  anger  against  Agamemnon  had  been. 
He  thirsted  for  revenge,  and  in  order  to  obtain  it  he  con- 
sented to  a reconciliation  with  Agamemnon,^  which  no  sense 
of  duty  to  his  countrymen  had  been  able  to  bring  about. 

* Iliad,  i.  ® Ibid.,  ix.  ^ Ibid.,  xvi.  4 Jbid.,  xix. 


244 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


At  the  entreaty  of  Thetis,  Hephaistos  forged  a new  suit  of 
armour  * for  him,  the  most  beautiful  and  splendid  that  had 
ever  been  seen,  and  arrayed  in  this  Achilles  went  forth  to 
revenge  himself  on  Hektor.  The  armies  met,  and  marvellous 
feats  of  valour  were  done  on  both  sides  ; but  when  Achilles 
appeared  the  Trojans  fled  like  sheep,  only  Hektor  standing 
out  against  him.  With  gloomy  forebodings  Hektor  had  said 
farewell  to  his  wife  Andromache  and  his  little  son  Astyanax^ 
for  his  honour  commanded  him  to  venture  on  a contest  from 
which  he  knew  he  should  never  return.  When  Achilles 
came  to  meet  him,  dread  and  terrible  as  Ares  himself, 
Hektor^s  hitherto  invincible  courage  sank,  and  he  fled 
towards  the  city  gate.  But  it  was  in  vain  ; Achilles 
pursued  him  and  cut  off  his  retreat.  Then  Hektor  rallied 
his  courage,  and  turned  to  meet  his  doom.  After  a short, 
sharp  fight  he  met  his  death  under  the  very  eyes  of  his  wife, 
who  was  watching  him  from  the  walls.® 

Even  the  death  of  Hektor  was  not  enough  to  appease  the 
wrath  of  Achilles,  but  he  shamefully  maltreated  the  corpse 
of  his  defeated  enemy.  Binding  the  dead  hero  by  the  feet 
to  his  war-chariot,  he  dragged  him  round  the  walls  of  Troy 
and  to  the  camp  of  the  Greeks,  where  he  threw  him  down 
in  the  dust  and  mire.  The  gods,  who  loved  Hektor,  would 
not  have  his  corpse  defiled,  so  they  protected  it  from  mutila- 
tion and  decay,  and  made  it  keep  its  pristine  beauty.  It  was 
fated  in  the  counsels  of  Zeus  that  Achilles’  heart  should 
be  softened,  and  that  he  should  purify  his  reputation  by  a 
noble  deed.  Thetis  brought  to  her  son  the  command  from 
Zeus  to  deliver  up  Hektor’s  body  without  ransom  ; at  the 
same  time  Hermes  commanded  Priamos  to  go  alone  to 
Achilles  by  night,  and  to  ask  for  the  body  of  his  son.3  The 
old  man  obeyed,  and  coming  to  the  hero’s  tent,  he  begged 


^ Iliad,  xviii. 


Ib  d.,  xxii. 


3 Ibid.,  xxiv. 


VI.] 


PENTHESILEIA 


245 


for  the  corpse  with  moving  words,  reminding  Achilles  of 
his  own  father.  Then  the  hero’s  heart  was  touched  ; he 
raised  the  aged  suppliant  from  the  ground,  entertained  him 
hospitably,  delivered  to  him  his  son’s  body,  and  sent  him 
with  a safe  conduct  back  to  Troy.  The  body  of  Patroklos 
was  buried  by  the  Greeks  with  great  funeral  pomp. 

(e)  The  Last  Contests  and  Death  of  Achilles J- 

After  the  death  of  Hektor,  their  protecting  hero,  the 
Trojans  did  not  venture  without  the  walls  until  new  aid 
came  to  them.  While  they  were  still  mourning  for  Hektor, 
they  were  inspired  with  fresh  courage  by  the  arrival  of  an 
army  of  Amazons,  led  by  Penthesileial^  daughter  of  Ares. 
Penthesileia  was  eager  to  measure  her  strength  in  single 
combat  with  Achilles,  and  to  avenge  on  him  the  death  of 
Hektor. 

And  now  began  fresh  contests.  Penthesileia  fought  at 
the  head  of  the  Trojan  army,  while  Achilles  and  Aias  of 
Aigina,  son  of  Telamon,  led  the  Greeks.  While  Aias  and 
the  Greek  army  were  driving  back  the  Trojans,  Penthesileia 
engaged  Achilles  in  single  combat.  But  a woman,  though 
a daughter  of  Ares,  was  no  match  for  a hero  who  could  slay 
the  strongest  men.  Achilles  would  gladly  have  spared  the 
noble  maiden,  and  only  when  his  life  was  threatened  did  he 
rally  his  full  strength  to  deal  her  a mortal  blow.  When  she 
felt  the  wound  and  knew  that  she  must  die,  she  remembered 
the  insults  heaped  on  Hektor’s  corpse,  and  earnestly  begged 

. For  the  poems  of  the  Epic  Cycle  (lost)  see  Quintus  Smyrnseus,  “ Post- 
homerica’’;  D.  B.  Munro,  On  the  Fragment  of  Proclus’ abstract 
of  the  Epic  Cycle  in  the  Codex  Venetus  of  the  Iliad  (in  Journal 

* -<  of  Hellenic  Studies^  vol.  iv.)  ; the  Poems  of  the  Epic  Cycle  (ibid,, 

vol.  V.). 

For  the  chief  facts  about  the  poems  see  R.  C.  Jebb,  “ Homer  : An 

' Introduction  to  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,”  Chap.  iv. 

• “ .^thiopis,”  see  Epic  Cycle. 


246  MYTHS  OF  HEROES  [chap. 

that  she  might  be  spared  the  like  indignity.  The  prayer  was 
needless,  for  Achilles  would  not  treat  a defenceless  woman 
with  scorn  or  rage.  He  raised  the  dying  maiden  from  the 
ground,  and,  seeing  that  all  hope  of  life  was  over,  he  held  her 
in  his  arms  till  she  died. 

When  the  Trojans  and  Amazons  saw  their  leader  in  the 
enemy^s  power,  they  rushed  forward  to  fight  for  her  corpse  ; 
but  Achilles  shouted  to  them  to  pause,  and  declared  that  he 
was  ready  to  give  up  the  body  without  ransom,  praising 
Penthesileia’s  bravery,  and  mourning  her  youthful  beauty 
cut  off  by  death.  Greeks  and  Trojans  heard  with  reverence 
the  words  of  the  hero  ; only  Thersites^  a hateful,  low,  cowardly 
wretch,  could  not  understand  such  noble  speech,  and  address- 
ing Achilles  in  terms  of  scurrilous  abuse,  he  stepped  up  to 
the  dead  maiden,  and  thrust  his  lance  into  her  eye.  Achilles, 
in  a passion  of  rage,  dealt  him  one  blow  with  his  fist,  and 
the  wretch  lay  dead  on  the  earth. 

All  present  approved  the  deed  of  vengeance,  but  Dtomedes^ 
son  of  Tydeus,  could  not  let  it  pass,  for  Thersites  was  his 
blood-relation  ; he  therefore  stepped  forward  and  demanded 
the  price  of  blood.  Achilles,  deeply  wounded  that  any  of 
the  Greeks  should  oppose  his  will,  left  the  army  for  the 
second  time,  and  sailed  to  Lesbos.  Odysseus  had  to  use  all 
his  cunning  powers  of  persuasion  to  induce  him  to  purify 
himself  from  the  guilt  of  blood,  and  to  return  to  the  Grecian 
camp,  where  new  battles  were  awaiting  him. 

After  this,  Memnon,  a new  ally  of  the  Trojans,  appeared  on 
the  scene,  and  attacked  Achilles.  He  was  the  son  of  the  god- 
dess Eos  and  Tithonos,  therefore  Achilles^  equal  in  birth, 
and  he  wore  a suit  of  armour  forged  by  Hephaistos.  When 
the  heroes  met  in  fight,  the  two  divine  mothers  hastened 
to  Olympos  to  beg  for  the  life  of  their  sons  at  the  throne  of 
Zeus.  Zeus  was  resolved  to  do  nothing  against  the  will  of 


VI.] 


DEATH  OF  ACHILLES 


247 


the  Fates  ; so  he  took  into  his  hand  the  golden  balance,  in 
which  he  weighs  out  to  men  the  lots  of  life  and  death,  and 
placed  the  lots  of  Achilles  and  Memnon  in  the  scales.  The 
lot  of  Memnon  sank,  signifying  his*  death.  Eos  left  Olympos 
in  despair.  When  she  came  to  the  battle-field  of  Troy, 
Memnon  had  fallen  before  the  spear  of  Achilles,  and  she 
could  do  no  more  than  carry  the  corpse  of  her  son  to  her  far 
home  in  the  East,  where  she  buried  it  with  due  rites. 

But  the  star  of  Achilles  was  soon  to  wane.  Intoxicated 
with  his  triumphs,  he  led  a storming  attack  against  Troy. 
The  Trojans  offered  no  resistance,  and  Ilion  would  have  been 
taken,  contrary  to  the  will  of  Fate,  had  not  Apollo  directed 
an  arrow  from  the  bow  of  Paris,  so  that  it  mortally  wounded 
Achilles.  After  a desperate  struggle,  Aias  (Ajax),  son  of  Tela- 
mon, and  Odysseus  succeeded  in  recovering  his  body,  and  they 
buried  it  with  solemn  funeral  rites,  while  the  Muses  them- 
selves sang  the  dirge.  The  possessions  of  Achilles  were 
offered  by  Thetis  as  prizes  in  the  games  of  war  celebrated  in 
his  honour.  It  was  decided  by  consent  of  all  that  the 
armour  forged  by  Hephaistos  should  be  the  prize  of  one 
of  those  who  had  saved  his  corpse.  The  award  fell  to 
Odysseus,  and  Ajax,  rather  than  bear  to  take  the  second 
place,  slew  himself.  Another  story  says  that  he  went  mad, 
and  committed  such  childish  follies,  that  when  he  came  to 
his  senses  he  slew  himself  for  shame.* 

(/)  The  last  Events  before  the  Takmg  of  the  City, 

When  the  Greeks  had  lost  Achilles  and  Ajax,  there  was  a 
pause  in  hostilities.  But  Odysseus  caught  Helenos^  a son  of 
Priam,  by  stratagem,  and  forced  him  to  use  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy, which  he,  like  his  sister  Kassandra,  possessed,  against 
his  own  city. 


* Sophocles,  “Ajax. 


248 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap 


Helenos  told  the  Greeks  that  before  they  could  take  xroy 
they  must  do  three  things — first,  induce  the  son  of  Achilles 
to  fight  on  their  side ; second,  obtain  the  arrows  of  Herakles  ; 
and  third,  take  possession  of  the  Palladion,  the  ancient  sacred 
image  of  Athene  in  the  Temple  of  Troy. 

The  first  of  these  tasks  was  undertaken  by  Odysseus,  who 
was  always  ready  to  serve  the  common  cause.  He  sailed  to 
Skyros,  where  Achilles’  son,  Neoptolemos,  had  passed  his 
boyhood,  and  easily  succeeded  in  rousing  the  ambition  of  the 
nobleyouth.  He  gave  him  his  father’s  precious  armour  to  wear, 
and  led  him  to  Troy,  where  Neoptolemos  at  once  distinguished 
himself  in  single  combat  with  Eurypylos,  son  of  Telephos. 

It  was  a more  difficult  task  to  obtain  the  arrows  of  Herakles, 
for  they  were  in  the  possession  of  PhilokteteSy  who  had  been 
shamefully  abandoned  by  the  Greeks,  and  was  still  on  the 
island  of  Lemnos,  suffering  from  his  incurable  wound.  But, 
owing  to  the  prudence  and  energy  of  the  unwearied  Odys- 
seus, aided  by  Diomedes  and  Neoptolemos,  Philoktetes  was 
brought  to  the  camp  of  the  Greeks,  his  wound  was  healed 
by  Machaon,  son  of  Asklepios,  he  reconciled  himself  to 
Agamemnon,  and  first  tried  his  arrows  in  a single  combat 
with  Paris. 

The  Trojans  were  still  closely  besieged'  in  their  city  ; but 
all  this  was  of  no  use  so  long  as  the  third  condition  remained 
unfulfilled.  And  now  Odysseus  again  came  forward  and 
practised  a stratagem  in  order  to  find  out  where  the  Palladion 
was  preserved.  He  dressed  himself  in  beggars’  rags,  cut 
himself  till  he  was  beyond  recognition,  and  in  this  state 
crept  into  the  town  and  found  the  sanctuary  of  the  image. 
Only  Helena  recognized  him.  After  the  death  of  Paris  she 
had  become  more  and  more  averse  to  the  Trojans  ; she 
considered  herself  a captive  in  Troy,  and  longed  to  be 
reunited  to  Menelaos — hence  Odysseus  found  in  her  an 


VI.] 


IHE  TAKING  OF  TROY 


249 


unexpected  ally,  and  planned  with  her  how  the  town  should 
be  taken. 

As  soon  as  Odysseus  returned  to  the  camp,  he  summoned 
Diomedes,  and  together  they  went  into  the  city  and  seized 
the  image.  And  now  the  three  conditions  announced  by 
Helenos  had  been  fulfilled  ; yet  to  take  the  town  one  more 
stratagem  was  necessary,  and  this  was  again  the  invention 
of  Odysseus,  inspired  by  Athene.  He  caused  Epeios^^  a 
Greek  craftsman,  to  fashion  a colossal  horse  of  wood,  large 
enough  to  form  a hiding-place  for  a number  of  warriors. 
As  soon^as  it  was  ready,  a chosen  band  of  heroes  was  shut 
up  inside  it.  Then  the  Greeks  broke  up  their  camp,  and, 
feigning  to  abandon  the  siege  and  to  start  for  home,  they 
took  to  their  ships,  leaving  the  wooden  horse  behind. 

(^)  The  Taking  of  Troy,^ 

When  the  Trojans  saw  that  their  enemies  had  broken  up 
their  camp  and  had  sailed  away,  they  thought  they  were 
safe,  and  flocked  out  of  the  town  to  see  the  place  where  the 
Greek  tents  had  been.  They  soon  found  the  wooden  horse, 
and  regarded  it  with  great  curiosity,  disputing  among  them- 
selves what  it  might  mean.  Some  said  it  was  an  engine  of 
war,  and  ought  to  be  destroyed  ; others,  that  it  was  a sacred 
image  or  a votive  offering,  and  ought  to  be  brought  into  the 
town. 

Laokoon^^  the  priest  of  Apollo,  who,  with  his  two  young 
sons,  had  come  out  to  perform  a sacrifice,  had  a suspicion 
that  the  horse  was  a trick.  He  earnestly  warned  his  country- 
men to  put  no  trust  in  the  Greeks,  even  when  bearing  gifts. 


* Virgil,  ^n.,  ii. 

* Iliupersis,  see  “ Epic  Cycle.” 
3 Virgil,  iEn.,  ii.  234. 


250 


Myths  of  heroes 


[chap. 


Then  he  hurled  his  spear  against  the  side  of  the  horse,  and 
there  was  a sound  as  of  the  rattling  of  armour.  The  Trojans 
would  have  attended  to  this  warning,  but  the  gods,  having 
determined  the  destruction  of  the  city,  sent  an  omen  which 
led  their  minds  astray.  While  Laokoon  was  standing  with 
his  boys  at  the  altar  ready  to  slay  the  victim,  two  huge 
snakes  came  swimming  through  the  sea  from  the  island  of 
Tenedos,  glided  to  the  priest,  and  winding  him  and  his  sons 
in  their  deadly  coils,  bit  them  to  death. 

The  fate  of  Laokoon  appeared  to  the  Trojans  to  be  a 
punishment  for  the  blow  given  to  the  sacred  offer- 
ing. Another  circumstance  confirmed  them  in  their  error. 
Odysseus  had  left  behind  one  Sinon^  his  friend.  This 
man  now  came  forward  to  Priam  as  a suppliant,  with 
his  hands  tied,  pretending  to  have  escaped  from  the 
Greeks,  who,  he  said,  wished  to  sacrifice  him.  The  old  king 
believed  him,  loosed  his  bonds  and  commanded  him  to  tell 
the  meaning  of  the  horse.  Sinon  said  it  was  a sacred  image, 
and  advised  the  Trojans  to  take  it  into  the  town,  and  keep 
it,  instead  of  the  Palladion,  as  a pledge  of  the  protection  of 
the  god.  The  Trojans  determined  to  follow  his  advice,  and 
as  the  gate  was  too  narrow  for  the  horse  to  pass,  a breach 
was  made  in  the  wall,  and  the  supposed  votive  offering  was 
dragged  in  triumph  through  the  town  and  up  to  the  citadel. 
The  Trojans  gave  themselves  up  to  unrestrained  merriment ; 
they  feasted  and  drank,  sang  and  rejoiced  far  on  into  the 
night,  and  then  fell  into  a careless  sleep. 

As  soon  as  all  was  still  in  the  city,  Sinon  opened  the  horse 
and  let  the  heroes  out.  A beacon  was  lighted  as  a signal  to 
the  Grecian  fleet,  which  lay  in  hiding  near  Tenedos  ; the 
army  landed  again,  and  easily  penetrated  into  the  city,  which 
was  left  unguarded.  A dreadful  slaughter  now  began  ; the 
Trojan  heroes,  awake  too  late  to  their  danger,  made  a 


laokoOn-group. 

(VATICAN,  ROME.) 


VI.1 


THE  HOMEWARD  VOYAGE 


251 


desperate  resistance,  but  in  vain.  Everywhere  the  city 
was  ablaze.  Priamos  fell  by  the  hand  of  Neoptolemos, 
Hektor’s  son  was  slain,  that  he  might  not  grow  up  to  avenge 
his  father^s  death,  and  the  bravest  heroes  died  in  battle. 
Only  Atnetas  (^neas)  escaped,  with  his  son,  Askanios^  and 
his  father,  AnckzseSj  whom  he  carried  on  his  shoulders  out 
of  the  burning  town.  They  took  refuge  in  the  mountains 
of  Ida,  and  at  last  reached  Italy,  where  ^neas  became  the 
founder  of  a new  race. 

Menelaos  found  his  wife  Helena  again,  and  was  reconciled 
to  her. 

“ And  strong  and  fair  the  south  wind  blew,  and  fleet 
Their  voyaging,  so  merrily  they  fled 
To  win  that  haven  where  the  waters  sweet 
Of  clear  Eurotas  with  the  brine  are  wed  ; 

And  swift  their  chariots  and  their  horses  sped 
To  pleasant  Lacedaemon,  lying  low 

Grey  in  the  shade  of  sunset,  but  the  head 
Of  tall  Taygetus  like  fire  did  glow.”  * 

The  Trojan  women  were  assigned  to  the  Greek  heroes 
as  prizes  of  war.  Hektor’s  wife,  Andromache,  was  promised 
to  Neoptolemos  ; Kassandra,  Priamos  daughter,  to  Aga- 
memnon. The  conquerors  razed  Troy  to  the  ground,  and 
set  out  for  home  laden  with  rich  spoil. 

(/z)  The  Homeward  Voyage.^ 

Some  of  the  heroes  were  fated  never  to  see  their  home  and 
friends  again,  for  they  had  brought  down  the  anger  of  the  gods 
on  them  by  their  crimes.  Aias  (Ajax),  son  of  Oileus,  perished 
in  a storm  sent  by  Athene  as  soon  as  the  fleet  had  left  Troy, 

* A.  Lang. 

^ j Homer,  Odyssey. 

1 Nostoi,  Telegonia,  see  ‘‘  Epic  Cycle.” 


2$2  MYTHS  OF  HEROES  [chap. 

and  many  others  died  or  wandered  far  before  they  reached 
home.  Nestor^  Idomeneus^  Diomedes^  Philoktetes  and  Neopto- 
lemos  came  to  their  native  land  in  safety  ; but  Menelaos  was 
driven  about  on  the  seas,  and  reached  Sparta  many  years 
later.  For  Agamemnon  and  Odysseus  were  reserved  the 
heaviest  toils  ot  all. 

(t)  AgamemnofPs  Death  and  Orestes^  Revenge, 

Agamemnon  had  no  remarkable  adventures  on  his  way, 
but  he  met  with  a treacherous  reception  in  his  home.  His 
wife  Klytaimnestra^  estranged  from  him  by  his  sacrifice 
of  Iphigenia,  had  during  his  absence  formed  a union  with 
Aigisthos^  son  of  Thyestes,  and  with  him  she  made  a 
conspiracy  to  murder  her  husband  on  his  return.  She 
received  Agamemnon  with  so  much  feigned  pleasure 
and  affection  that  he  did  not  suspect  her  design,  and  disre- 
garded the  warnings  of  Kassandra.  Kyltaimnestra  had  pre- 
pared a warm  bath,  and  as  Agamemnon  left  it  he  found  himself 
entangled  in  a curiously-netted  robe.  Being  thus  defence- 
less, he  was  stabbed  by  his  wife  and  her  paramour.  Kas- 
sandra was  also  murdered,  and  the  followers  of  the  king 
were  put  to  the  sword  ; only  Orestes^  Agamemnon’s  son, 
escaped,  being  hidden  by  his  sister  Elektra,  He  fled  to 
Phokis,  where  he  remained  for  many  years  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a guest -friend  of  his  father.  Meanwhile  Aigisthos 
and  Klytaimnestra  ruled  over  Argos,  and  enjoyed  some  years 
of  deceptive  security. 

When  Orestes  was  grown,  Apollo  commanded  him  to 
take  vengeance  on  his  father’s  murderers,  promising  him 
protection  in  the  act.  Orestes  went  at  once  to  Mykenai 
with  his  faithful  friend  Pylades^  made  himself  known  to  his 
sister  Elektra,  but  caused  his  mother  to  be  told  the  false 
news  that  he  was  dead.  At  this  Klytaimnestra  and  Aigis- 


VlJ 


ORESTES 


253 


thos  broke  out  into  expressions  of  joy  and  triumph.  Then 
the  two  youths  could  no  longer  refrain,  but  arose  and  slew 
them  both. 

This  murder  of  a mother,  although  a just  act  of  revenge 
and  commanded  by  Apollo,  could  not  but  bring  its  own 
punishment.  Scarcely  was  the  deed  accomplished,  when 
the  Erinyes  appeared  on  the  track  of  Orestes,  and  they 
pursued  him  from  country  to  country.  When  he  came  to 
Delphi  and  madex complaint  to  Apollo,  he  was  told  that  if 
he  would  go  to  Tauris  and  bring  the  image  of  the  goddess 
Artemis  to  Greece  he  should  be  cleansed  from  his  guilt. 

Now,  Iphigenia  was  priestess  of  Artemis  in  Tauris,  and  by 
the  law  of  the  temple  she  must  sacrifice  all  strangers  who 
came  thither.  As  soon  as  Orestes  and  Pylades  landed,  they 
were  captured  and  brought  to  the  temple  for  sacrifice. 
Chance  made  the  brother  and  sister  known  to  each  other  ; 
Orestes  told  Iphigenia  all  that  had  passed,  and  what  Apollo 
had  commanded,  and  together  they  escaped,  bearing  the 
image  of  Artemis. 

Yet  the  Erinyes  did  not  cease  to  pursue  Orestes.  Then 
Apollo  sent  him  to  Athens  to  stand  his  trial  for  murder 
before  the  Areiopagos.  The  Erinyes  were  the  accusers, 
Apollo  defended  the  accused,  and  Athene  herself  presided 
over  the  court.  The  votes  of  the  judges  for  ‘‘guilty  ''  and 
“ not  guilty  were  equal  in  number.  Then  Athene  laid  a 
white  stone  in  the  urn,  and  Orestes  was  acquitted — hence 
arose  the  Athenian  practice  always  to  acquit  the  accused 
when  the  votes  were  equal.  On  such  occasions  a white 
stone,  called  “Athene’s  stone,”  or  “the  stone  of  mercy,” 
was  added  to  the  urn. 

Now  Orestes  was  clear  of  blood- guiltiness  and  freed  from 
the  pursuit  of  the  avenging  goddesses.  He  entered  on  his 
ancestral  kingdom  of  Mykenai,  married  Hermione,  daughter 


254 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


of  Menelaos  and  Helen,  and  ruled  over  Sparta  after 
Menelaos’  death.  ^ < 

(k)  The  Odyssey^  or  Return  of  Odysseus. 

Long  after  the  other  heroes  had  returned  to  their  homes, 
Odysseus  was  wandering  about  on  the  seas.  He  sailed 
away  from  Troy  with  all  his  ships,  men  and  spoil,  and  after 
a few  minor  adventures  which  cost  him  the  lives  of  some  of 
"his  companions  he  came  to  the  country  of  the  Kyklopes 
(Cyclopes),  dreadful  monsters  who  had  one  eye  in  the  middle 
of  the  forehead.  Odysseus  and  the  men  of  his  own  ship  went 
into  the  cave  of  the  Cyclops  Polyphemos.^  son  of  Poseidon, 
while  the  other  ships  rode  at  anchor  in  shelter  of  a 
neighbouring  island.  The  Cyclops,  when  he  had  fed  his 
flocks,  returned  to  his  cave,  rolled  a large  stone  which  many 
men  could  not  move  before  the  mouth,  and  devoured  two 
of  Odysseus’  companions  for  his  supper.  Then  he  fell 
asleep.  The  next  morning  he  devoured  two  more,  drove 
out  his  flocks,  and  rolled  the  stone  before  the  hole,  so  that 
Odysseus  was  caught  as  in  a trap.  This  went  on  for  three 
days,  and  then  Odysseus  thought  of  a plan  to  get  free.  He 
could  easily  have  killed  the  Cyclops  in  his  sleep,  but  then 
he  and  his  comrades  would  all  have  been  starved  to  death 
in  the  cave,  for  none  of  them  could  roll  away  the  stone.  So 
he  made  the  Cyclops  drink  freely  of  some  strong  wine  he 
had  brought  with  him  in  a skin,  and  when  the  monster  fell 
into  a drunken  sleep  he  put  out  his  one  eye  with  a glowing 
pointed  stake.  Mad  with  pain,  the  giant  sprang  up  and 
felt  for  the  strangers,  but  in  vain.  As  soon  as  it  was  light 
he  pushed  the  stone  back  to  make  a narrow  passage,  and, 
sitting  down,  he  spread  his  hands  over  the  opening,  thinking 

, / Johannes  Bolte,  **  De  Monumentis  ad  Odysseani  pertinentibus.” 

I J.  E.  Harrison;  “ Myths  of  the  Odyssey  in  Art  and  Literature.** 


ZEUS  OF  OTRICOLI, 

(VATICAN,  ROME.) 


VI.] 


ODYSSEUS  AND  THE  CYCLOPS 


255 


that  the  men  would  try  to  escape,  and  that  he  would 
then  easily  be  able  to  catch  them.  But  Odysseus  bound 
the  sheep  in  pairs  together,  and  under  each  pair  he  tied  one 
of  his  companions,  while  he  himself  clung  to  the  shaggy 
wool  underneath  the  great  ram,  the  leader  of  the  herd. 
Then  Odysseus  drove  all  the  sheep  out,  and  the  ram  went 
last ; but  the  Cyclops  only  felt  the  wool  on  their  backs,  and 
suspected  nothing.  So  Odysseus  and  his  companions 
escaped  and  reached  their  ship.  As  they  sailed  away, 
Odysseus  shouted  his  name  to  the  Cyclops  and  abused 
him  in  round  terms,  and  the  Cyclops  tore  off  masses  of 
rock  and  threw  them  at  the  ship,  but  could  not  strike  it. 
Finding  his  efforts  vain,  he  prayed  to  his  father  Poseidon 
to  avenge  him  and  punish  Odysseus.  Poseidon  heard  the 
prayer,  and  made  Odysseus  wander  for  ten  years  more  till 
he  had  lost  all  his  companions.  After  leaving  the  land  of 
the  Cyclopes  the  Greeks  came  first  to  AzoloSj  king  of  the 
winds,  who  received  them  hospitably  and  sent  a favourable 
wind  to  take  them  on  their  journey,  giving  them  also 
the  storm-winds  shut  up  in  a bag.  The  companions  of 
Odysseus,  being  curious  to  know  what  was  in  the  bag, 
and  supposing  that  it  contained  treasure,  opened  it  while 
he  was  asleep.  All  the  winds  flew  out,  and  raised  such  a 
storm  and  whirlwind  that  the  ships  were  again  driven 
out  of  their  course  and  tossed  about  as  the  sport  of  the 
waves. 

Nor  was  this  the  end  of  their  troubles.  Landing  from 
their  ships  on  the  coast  of  the  Laesirygones^  they,  were 
attacked  by  these  cruel  giants,  who  threw  huge  blocks  of 
stone  till  they  had  overwhelmed  and  destroyed  all  the 
ships,  with  their  crews,  except  one. 

The  men  who  survived  next  came  to  the  enchantress 
Kirke^  sister  of  Medeia.  By  a magic  potion  she  changed  all 


256  MYTHS  OF  HEROES  [chai> 

the  Greeks  in  the  company  into  swine.  Odysseus,  by  help 
of  the  gods,  resisted  the  spell,  and  forced  her  to  restore  his 
friends  to  their  human  shape.  After  this  Kirke  became 
more  friendly,  entertained  the  Greeks  for  a year,  and  advised 
Odysseus  to  go  down  to  the  underworld  ^ and  ask  Teiresias 
what  should  befal  him  in  the  future.  Odysseus  obeyed,  and 
came  safely  to  Hades,  where  he  saw  the  ghosts  of  the  heroes 
who  had  fallen  in  the  Trojan  war.  He  saw,  too,  the  ghost 
of  his  mother,  who  wept  and  mourned  as  she  revealed  to 
him  the  sad  condition  of  his  palace  at  home.  After  this 
descent  into  Hades,  Odysseus  returned  to  take  farewell  of 
Kirke,  and  she  gave  him  good  advice  for  his  farther 
journey. 

Odysseus  passed  the  Sirens  safely,  and  then  entered  the 
dangerous  strait  guarded  on  the  one  side  by  Charybdts^  a 
monster  who  lived  in  the  water  and  dragged  all  ships  into 
her  whirlpool,  and  on  the  other  by  Scylla^  a six-headed 
beast,  who  lurked  behind  a rock  and  devoured  sailors  as 
they  passed.  Odysseus  chose  to  lose  some  of  his  men  rather 
than  that  his  entire  crew  should  perish.  He  therefore 
avoided  Charybdis  and  steered  nearer  to  Scylla,  who  seized 
and  devoured  six  of  his  companions.  The  others  escaped 
alive. 

Against  the  warnings  of  Teiresias  and  of  Kirke,  the 
Greeks  now  landed  on  the  coast  of  Trinakria,  where  the 
sacred  oxen  of  the  sun-god  were  pastured.  It  was  forbidden 
under  heavy  penalties  to  touch  these  cattle  ; but  while 
Odysseus  was  asleep  his  companions  stole  some  oxen, 
sacrificed  them  and  prepared  a meal  of  their  flesh.  The 
god  punished  this  sacrilege  by  destroying  all  the  remaining 
companions  of  Odysseus  in  a dreadful  .storm.  He  himself 

^ L Odyssey,  xi. 

1 PausaniaSjX.  25  and  27. 


VI.] 


PENELOPE 


257 


barely  escaped  death.  After  tossing  about  for  nine  days, 
clinging  to  the  wreck  of  his  ship,  he  was  thrown  on  the 
lonely  island  of  the  nymph  Kalypso^  who  fell  in  love  with 
him,  and  kept  him  with  her  for  seven  years. 

Odysseus  scorned  her  love  and  her  offers  to  make  him 
immortal.  He  would  often  sit  and  weep  on  the  shore,  gazing 
longingly  out  over  the  blue  sea,  and  praying  that  he  might  see 
the  smoke  of  his  own  hearth  once  more  before  he  died.  At 
last  the  gods  took  pity  on  him,  and  commanded  Kalypso  to  let 
him  go.  So  Odysseus  built  a raft  and  again  committed 
himself  to  the  waves.  Poseidon,  whose  anger  still  raged, 
shattered  the  raft,  and  if  Leukothea'^  had  not  thrown  her 
veil  to  Odysseus  he  would  have  been  drowned.  Supporting 
himself  by  the  veil,  he  swam  to  the  island  of  the  Phaiacians, 
whose  king,  received  him  kindly,  and  after  hearing 

the  recital  of  his  adventures,  sent  him,  loaded  with  rich 
presents,  to  his  own  country.  Here  he  found  his  wife 
Penelope  still  true  to  him,  although  constantly  besieged  by 
the  princes  of  the  neighbouring  islands,  who  urged  her  to 
choose  one  of  them  as  a second  husband.  Meanwhile  they 
devoured  and  wasted  the  goods  and  substance  of  the  master 
of  the  house. 

Telemachos^  son  of  Odysseus,  now  a grown  youth,  had 
just  returned  from  a journey  which  he  took  to  find  news  of 
his  father.  The  father  and  son  met  at  the  hut  of  a faithful 
swineherd,  and  consulted  together  how  to  take  vengeance  on 
the  suitors.  With  the  help  of  Athene,  they  slew  them  all, 
in  spite  of  their  desperate  resistance.  Odysseus  then  made 
himself  known  to  his  wife  Penelope  and  to  his  aged  father 
Laertes^  who  lived  alone  and  apart  and  cultivated  his 
garden.  A revolt  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ithaka,  who 

* O.  Crusius,  “ Beitrage  zur  griechischen  Mythologie  und  Religions- 
geschichte,”  1886,  Tbomasschule  programme,  No.  498. 

18 


258 


MYTHS  OF  HEROES 


[chap. 


resented  the  slaughter  of  their  chiefs,  was  put  down  by 
Odysseus  with  the  help  of  those  of  his  subjects  who 
remained  faithful  to  him,  and  then  he  reigned  happily 
and  peacefully  till  his  death. 

(/)  Aineias  {yE7teas), 

The  only  Trojan  hero  who  escaped  death  or  slavery  was 
^neas,  one  of  the  house  of  Dardanos.  Led  by  his  divine 
mother  Aphrodite,  he  escaped  from  the  burning  city  of 
Troy  to  the  mountain  range  of  Ida,  carrying  his  old  father 
Anchises  on  his  shoulders  and  holding  his  little  son  Askanios 
(Ascanius)  by  the  hand.  Together  they  left  Asia  to  found 
a new  home  far  away.  After  many  wanderings  they  came 
to  Epeiros.  There  they  heard  that  Neoptolemos  was  dead, 
and  that  Helenas^  son  of  Priam,  had  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  married  Andromache,  widow  of  Hektor.  After 
spending  some  time  in  joy  and  feasting  with  their  kindred 
the  Trojans  continued  their  journey.  They  landed  in  Sicily, 
and  there  Anchises  died.  After  more  wanderings  they 
came  to  Carthage,  where  Queen  Dido  received  them  hos- 
pitably, and  would  have  shared  her  throne  with  ^neas 
had  the  gods  allowed  him  to  stay.  But  they  commanded 
him  to  go  to  Italy  and  seek  an  alliance  with  King  Latiniis. 
The  king  received  ^neas  kindly,  but  strife  arose  with 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  After  defeating  Turnus, 
his  rival,  in  single  combat,  ^neas  took  possession  of  the 
new  home  assigned  him  by  the  Fates,  married  Lavinia^ 
daughter  of  Latinus,  and  lived  long  and  happily  with  her 
in  the  city  called  by  her  name.  The  story  of  the  adventures 
of  ^neas  is  told  by  the  poet  Virgil.  The  noblest  families 
of  Rome  loved  to  trace  their  descent  from  the  Trojan  settlers, 
and  the  great  Caius  Julius  Caesar  was  told  by  the  poets  and 
flatterers  of  his  time  that  the  Julian  Gens  to  which  he 
belonged  took  its  name  from  lulus  or  Ascanius,  son  of  ^neas. 


INDEX. 


Abai,  182 

Abantes,  182 

Abas,  181,  182 

Abdera,  208 

Abderos,  208 

Achaia  (Achaea),  123 

Achaians  (Achaeans),  179,  198 

Achaios,  198 

Acheloos,  129,  130,  214 

Acheron,  162 

Achilleus  (Achilles),  54,  71,  82,  108, 
121,  128,  162,  212,  213,  223,  237- 
248 

Actaion  (Actaeon),  63,  72,  88,  188 
Admetos  (Admetus),  54,  221,  224 
Adonis,  95,  97 
Adrasteia,  40 

Adrastos,  182,  229,  230,  231,  232 
yEgean  Sea,  219 

^neas,  50,  95.  96,  98,  234,  251. 
258 

^schines,  3 
iElschylus,  3,  192 

^E^sculapius,  78  ; see  also  Asklepios 
^Etna,  109 

Agamemnon,  63,  202,  203,  237- 
243,  248,  251,  252 
Aganippe,  82 
Agathodaimon,  40 
Agave,  142,  188 
Agenor,  180,  187,  198 
Ages  of  Man 

Golden  Age,  21,  100,  117,  158, 

175 

Silver  Age,  21 


Brazen  Age,.  21,  22 
Iron  Age,  21,  22 
Aglaia,  106,  109 
Aglauros,  196 
Aiakos  (iEacus),  163 
Aias  (Ajax),  212,  245,  247,  251 
Aides  (Aidoneus,  Hades),  13,  15, 
16, 21, 42, 129, 133, 135,  140, 
161, 163-167, 183, 185, 21 1 
Aietes,  66,  226,  227 
Aigai  (H^gae),  123 
Aigeus  (yEgeus),  198-200,  216,  218- 
220,  227 

Aigina  (Aigina),  34,  73,  96,  185, 

,24s 

Aigisthos  (iEgisthus),  203,  252 
Aigle,  68 

Aigyptiadai  (^gyptiadae),  181 
Aigyptos  (iEgyptus),  180 
Aineias,  see  yEneas 
Aiolians  (Bohans),  179,  185 
Aiolos  (yEolus),  king  of  the  winds, 

76, 173. 255 

Aiolos,  son  of  Hellen,  179,  185,  224 
Aison  (yEson),  223 
Aithiopoi  (Ethiopi),  67 
Aithra  (yE'dhra),  216 
Aitolians  (yEtolians),  63 
Akrisios  (Acrisius),  181,  182,  184 
Aktaios  (Actaeus),  195 
Alekto,  13,  168 

Alexander  the  Great,  64,  65,  73 
Alexandria,  73 
Alexandros,  233 
Alkaios  (Alcaeus),  184,  203 


26o 


INDEX 


Alkamenes,  73 
Alkimede,  223 
Alkinoos,  257 
Alkippe,  196 

Alkmaion  (Alcmseon),  230 
Alkmene,  23,  28,  184,  198,  203, 
204 

Althaia  (Althaea),  105,  220-222 
Alpheios  (Alphaeus),  13^,  208 
Amaltheia,  14,  19 
Amazons,  91,  186,  209,  219,  245, 
246 

Amor,  98 

Amphiaraos,  182,  212,  229-232 
Amphion,  44,  57,  89,  189,  190,  201 
Amphitrite,  121,  124,  125,  128 
Amphitryon,  184,  203,  204,  206 
Amyklai  (Amyclae),  57,  58,  234 
Amykos  (Amycus),  225 
Amymone,  12 1,  18 1 
Anadyomene,  see  Aphrodite 
Anakreon,  3 
Anchinoe,  180 

Anchises,  95,  96,  234,  251,  258 
“Ancile,  93 
Androgeos,  199,  218 
Andromache,  244,  251,  258 
Andromeda,  120,  184,  202 
Ankaios  (Ancaeus),  221 
Antaios  (Antaeus),  210 
Anteros,  99,  103 
Anthedon,  126 

Anthesteria,  146  / 

Antigone,  192,  228,  230,  232  v 

Antiope,  57,  89,  189,  190,  219 

Antium,  78 

Apaturia,  109 

Apelles,  3,  97 

Aphareus,  235 

Aphrodite  (Venus),  9,  28,  32,  35, 
43,  52,  62,  89,  93-96,  98,  99, 
loi,  103-106,  109,  135,  154, 

• 188,  224,  233-235,  258 

Axnadyomene,  96 
Ourania,  94,  95 
Pandemos,  94,  219 
Apollo,  9,  23,  32,  34,  35,  43,  52, 
56-62,  66,  67,  72,  73,  77,  78, 
80,  82,  86,  88,  89,  loi,  104,  I 
120,  14S,  152,  172,  187,  196,  I 


197,  209,  212,  219,  229,  234, 
242,  247,  249,  252,  253 
Delphinios,  54,  58 
Ilyakinthos,  57 
Musagetes,  60,  61 
Nomios,  54 
Phoibos,  52,  55,  69 
Pythios,  56 
Sauroktonos,  61 
Apollon,  see  Apollo 
Apsyrtos,  226 

Apples  of  the  Hesperides,  210 
Archemoros,  231 

Areiopagos  (Areopagus),  91,  196, 

253 

Ares  (Mars),  9,  89-91,  95,  99,  109, 
185,  187,  188,  196,  201,  224, 
226,  229,  244,  245 
Argo,  123,  223,  225,  227 
Argolis,  32,  206 

Argonauts,  46,  77,  87,  123,  129, 
176,  180,  192,  212,  219,  221, 
223,  226 

Argos  (the  City),  50,  121,  165,  179, 
181,  182,  184,  185,  201-203, 
209,  216,  229,  238,  252 
Argos  (Argus)  (the  watcher),  43,  44 
Ariadne,  105,  143,  199,  218,  219, 
220 

;^rion,  88,  12 1,  232 
Aristaios  (Aristaeus),  72,  188 
Aristophanes,  3 
Aristotle,  3 

Arkadia  (Arcadia),  10,  24,  124,  153, 
208,  221,  222 
Arkas,  72 

Artemis  (Diana),  9,  23,  52,  56,  57, 
61-63,  65,  66,  69,  72,  73,  77, 
135,  148,  150,  168,  172,  188, 
207,  239,  240,  253 
of  Ephesus,  63 
-Hekate,  73 
Orthia,  65 
Orthosia,  65 
of  Tauris,  65 

Askanios  (Ascanius),  251,  258 
Asklepiadai,  79 
Asklepiaia,  78 

Asklepios  (i^sculapius),  56,  77-81, 
248 


Index 


261 


Asopos,  185 
Astarte,  94 
Asteria,  73 

Astraios  (Astraeus),  69,  70,  76,  87 
Astyanax,  244 
Atalanta,  221,  222,  229 
Ate,  39 

Athamas,  128,  1 88,  224 
Athene  (Minerva),  9,  44-46,  48,  50, 
51,  56,  62,  63,  89,  loi,  106, 
109,  120,  13?,  1152,  169,  170, 

177, 180, 183, 185, 187,  195. 

196, 208, 213, 218, 223, 233, 
234, 248, 249, 251, 257 
Ergane,  48,  5 1 
Glaukopis,  48 
Gorgophone,  46 
Hippia,  48 
Kourotrophos,  47 
Nike,  48 

Pallas,  22,  28,  31,  45,  51,  89, 
195,  220 
Parthenos,  48 
Polias,  48 
Promachos,  50 
Soteira,  48 
Tritogeneia,  45 
Tritonia,  45 

Athens,  22,  25,  34,  40,  48,  50,  62, 

65. 73. 77, 99.  104.  105.  108, 

123, 138, 145, 146, 154, 167, 168, 
184,  197,  199,  200,  216,  217-221, 
227,  230,  253 
Athos,  Mount,  77 
Atlas,  41,  125,  176,  183,  210 
Atreus,  202,^03  ^ 

Atrium,  115  ^ 

Atropos,  37,  220 

Attica,  47,  51,  104,  109,  120,  136, 
I79»  I95>  196,  198,  208,  216, 
220,  230 

Attika,  see  Attica 
Attis,  17,  18 
Auge,  213 

Augeian  Stable,  207 
Augeias  (Augaeas),  207,  208 
Augur,  156 
Augustus,  1 18 
Aulis,  63,  238,  239,  240 
Aurora,  69 


Autonoe,  188 
Auxo,  34,  106 
Aventine  Hill,  97 
Avernus,  164 

Bacchanalia,  148 
Bacchante,  83,  87,  145 
Bacchos,  see  Dionysos 
Bacchus,  147,  150 
Battos,  44 
Baucis,  24 
Bebrykes,  225 

Bellerophon,  47,  69,  176,  185,  186 

Bellona,  92 

Belos,  180 

Bia,  15 

Bias,  182 

Bceotia,  81,  99,  105,  124,  126,  145, 
179,  186,  187,  195,  198,  216 
Bona  Dea,  156 

Boreas,  69,  76,  77,  171,  224,  225 
Branchidai,  54 

Brazen  Age,  see  Ages  of  Man 
Brennus,  56 
Briseis,  242,  243 
Busiris,  210 

Cacus,  210 
Caesar,  Julius,  258 
Campania,  109 

Campus  Martius,  92,  no,  124,  165 
Capella,  20 

Capitolinus,  see  Jupiter 
Carthage,  258 
Castor,  156,  see  also  Kastor 
Caucasus,  177,  210 
Centaur,  77,  192-195,  207,  214,  215, 
220,  223 

Cerberus,  see  Kerberos 
Cerealia,  139 
Ceres,  139 
Chalkeia,  51,  108 
Chaos,  8,  98 

Charites,  28,  35,  62,  105,  106,  109 
Charitesia,  106 
Charon,  42,-162 
Charybdis,  256 

Cheiron,  77,  192,  216,  223,  239 
Chimaira,  185 
Chlamys,  44 


INDEX 


±62 


Chloris,  36 
Chryse,  242 
Chryseis,  242 
Chryses,  242 
Chrysippos,  202 
Chrysaor,  170 
Chthonia,  196 
Cicero,  3 
Circe,  see  Kirke 
Circus  Maximus,  124 
Cloacina,  see  Venus 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  66 
Compitales,  1 15 
Compitalia,  115 

Corinth,  62,  94,  123,  128,  163, 182^ 
185,  191,  216,  227 
Cretan  Bull,  208 

Crete,  14,  16,  25,  58,  loi,  105,  120, 
138,  187,  198,  200,  208,  218,  220, 

235 

Creusa,  see  Kreousa 
Cyclops,  12,  15,  56,  108,  109,  128, 
164,  254,  255 
Cyprus,  94 
Cultus,  6 

Daidalos,  199,  200 
Daimones  (Demons),  40 
Daktyls,  109 
Damastes,  217 
Danae,  182,  183,  184 
Danaides,  164,  180,  18 1 
Danaos,  121,  180,  181 
Daphne,  59 
Dardanos,  32,  258 
Deianira,  214,  215,  220 
Deidamia,  238 
Deimos,  91 
Deino,  1 68 
Delia,  59,  220 
Delos,  52,  109,  220 
Delphi,  53-56,  III,  1 12,  253 
Delphic  Oracle,  see  Oracle 
Delphic  Games,  see  Games 
Delphinion,  58 

Demeter  (Ceres),  5,  7,9,  13,  16,  23, 
73,  88,  104, T20,  121, 124,  129 
133-136,  138  140,  i6i,  166 

Thesmophoros,  135 
Demigods,  174  sq. 


Demophon,  136,  137 
Demosthenes,  3 
Deukalion,  22,  179 
Dike, ‘35 
Dikte,  14 
Diktys,  180 
Dione,  94 

Diomedes,  49,  89,  208,  246,  248, 
249,  252 

Dionysia,  145,  146 
Dionysos,  18,  23,  35,  42,  45,  52,64, 
103-106,  108,  no,  120,  126, 
128,  141-148,  151-154,  188, 
219,  220,  230 
Lusios,  145 

Dioskouroi  (Dioscuri),  156,  235,  236 

Dirke,  189,  190 

Dis,  165,  166 

Dodona,  25,  94 

Dorians,  58,  179 

Doris,  127 

Doros,  179 

Dryads,  150 

Echion,  188 
Echo,  96,  150 
Egypt,  71,  180,  195,  210 
Eileithyia,  62 
Eirene,  35 
Eiresione,  59 
Elaphebolia,  65 
Elektra,  31,  252 
Elektryon,  184 

Eleusinian  Mysteries^  see  Mysteries 
Eleusis,  5,  7,  136,  138,  139,  196 
216 

Elis,  25,  90,  96,  201,  207 
Elysium,  165,  172 
Endymion,  69 
Enipeus,  223 
Enkelados,  46 
Enyalios,  91 
Enyo,  91,  168 

Eos  (Aurora),  66, 69,  7o»  7I»  7^>  246, 

247  . 

, Epaphos,  67,  180 
Epeios,  249 
Epeiros,  258 

Ephesos  (Ephesus),  63-65 
Epidauros,  78,  216 


INDEX 


263 


Epigoni,  228,  232,  233 
Epimetheus,  176-179 
Epione,  8 1 
Epirus,  25 
Epopeus,  189 
Erato,  86 

Erechtheus,  196,  197,  216,  220 
Ergane,  see  Athene 
Erichthonios,  47,  109,  196 
Eridanos,  67,  68,  210 
Erinyes,  12,  55,  121,  167,  168,  253 
Eriphyle,  229 
Eris,  91,  233 

Eros,  8,  98,  99,  loi,  102-105 
Victor,  99 
Erotes,  103 
Erotidia,  99 
Erymanthian  Boar,  207 
Erymanthos,  207 
Erythia,  209 

Eteokles,  182,  191,  228-232 
Ethiopia,  71,  120 
Euboia  (Euboea),  182,  214 
Eumenides,  167,  230 
Eumolpidai,  7,  138 
Eumolpos,  196 
Euneos,  231 
Eunomia,  35 
Euphrosyne,  106 
Euripides,  3,  228 
Europa,  187,  198 
Euros,  69,  76 
Eurydike,  86,  87,  150,  182 
Euryale,  169 
Eurynome,  106,  107 
Eurypylos,  248 

Eurystheus,  202,  204,  206-209,  21 1 
215 

Eurytos,  193,  21 1,  214 

Fate,  2,  37,  48,  247 
Fatua,  156 
Fatuus,  155 
Fauna,  156 
Faunalia,  155 
Faunus,  155,  156 
Flamen  Cerealis,  139 
Flamen  Pomonalis,  160 
Flora,  1 6c 
Floralia,  160 


Fortuna,  37 
Forum,  118 
Furies,  167 

Gaia  (Goea),  12,  13,  15,  17,  31,34, 
72,  83,  109,  130,  133,  19s,  196, 
210 

Galanthis,  28 
Galateia,  128 
Gamelia,  see  Hera 
Games — 

Delian, 

Delphic,  53,  59 
Isthmian,  5,  8,  123 
Nemean,  5,  8,  26,  231 
Olympian,  5,  8,  25,  26,  53,  123 
Pythian,  5,  8 
Roman  or  Great,  26_ 

Secular,  166 
Ganymedes,  32 
Ge,  see  Gaia 
Gelanor,  181 
Genetrix,  see  Venus 
Genii,  103 
Genius,  40 
Geryon,  209,  210 
Giants,  13,  46 
Gigantes,  see  Giants 
Glauke,  227 
Glaukopis,  see  Athene 
Glaukos,  185 
Glaukos  Pontios,  126 
Golden  Age,  see  Ages  of  Man 
Golden  Fleece,  87^  223,  224,  226, 
227 

Gorgons,  168-170,  183 
Gorgophone,  see  Athene 
Gortys  (Gortyna),  187 
Graces  (Gratise),  see  Charites 
Graiai,  168-170,  173 

Hades  (the  Underworld),  10,  87, 
136,  162,  168,  220,  256  ; see  also 
Aides 

Haimon,  232 
Halimus,  138 
Haiirrothios,  196 
Haloa,  138 
Hamadryads,  150 
Harmonia,  188,  233 


264 


INDEX 


Harpies,  225 

Hebe,  23,  31,  32,  205,  215 
Hecuba,  see  Hekabe 
Hegemone,  106 
Hekabe,  233 
Hekate,  15, 136 
Hekatoncheires,  12,  15 
Hektor,  89,  234,  241,  243-245,251, 
258 

Helena,  165,  202,  203,  235,  237, 
241,248,  251,  254 
Helenos,  234,  247-249,  258 
Heliades,  68 
Heliaia,  66 
Helike,  123 
Helikon,  81,  82,  105 
Helios  (Sol),  61,  66-69,  136  177, 
209,  226 
Helle,  224 

Hellen,  179,  185,  224 
' HHlenes,  25,  48,  179 
Hellespont,  224,  233 
Hemera,  66 

Hephaistos  (Vulcan),  9,  23,  43,  45, 
51,  95,  106-110,  177,  178,  196, 
226,  244,  246,  247 
Hera,  9,  13,  16,  22,  23,  27-32,  35, 
43,  44,  46,  52,  62,  89, 107-109, 
III,  121,  128,  141,  142,  180, 
204,  206,  210,  215,  223,  233, 
234»236 
Gamelia,  27 
Teleia,  27 
Zygia,  27 

Herakles  (Hercules),  16,  23,  26,  28, 
32,  42,  44,  46,  56,  86, 90, 99, 120, 
126,  143,  162, 176,  177, 179,  180, 
184,  186,  198,  201,203-216,218- 
220,  223-225,  239,  240,  248 
Heraklidai,  179,  215 
Heraion,  28 
Hercules,  215 
Herm,  42 
Hermaia,  42 

Hermes,  9,  23,  24,  27,  31,  41-44* 
loi,  106,  136,  142,  148,  153, 
162,  177,  180,  183,  196,  215, 
224 

Pychopompos,  42 
Herinione,  253 


Herodotos,  3 
Heroes,  174 
Herostratos,  64 
Herse,  196 
Hesiod,  178 

Hesione,  120,  209,  212,  213 
Hesperides,  210 
Hesperos  (Vesper),  71 
Hestia,  9,  13,  16,  ill 
Hilaira,  235 
Himeros,  103 
Hippia,  see  Athene 
Hippodameia,  193,  201,  202,  220 
Hippokoontidai,  213 
Hippokrates,  79 
Hippokrene,  82 
Hippolyta,  209,  219 
Hippolytos,  96 
Hipponoos,  229 
Hippotes,  76 
Homer,  3,  30,  88,  89 
Horace,  3 

Horai  (Horae),  28,  34,  35 
Horses  of  Diomede,  208 
Hyades,  72 

Hyakinthos,  57,  58;  see  also 

Hybris,  39 

Hydra,  206 

Hygieia,  81 

Hylas,  72,  225 

Hyllos,  214 

Hymen  (Hymengeus),  104,  105 
Thalassios,  105 
Hymenaios,  see  Hymen 
Hyperboreans,  53,  67 
Hyperion,  12,  66,  69 
Hypermnestra,  i8i 
Hypnos,  170,  171 

Iasion 

Ida,  25,  32,  234, 251,  238 
Idas,  221,  235 
Idomeneus,  235,  252 
Ikarian  Sea,  200 
Ikarios,  237 
Ikaros,  200 
Ikelos,  172 

Ilion,  233,  239,  241,  247 
Ilissos,  65 
Illyria,  188 


INDEX 


265 


Inachian  Flood,  176,  179 
Inachos,  28,  121,  179,  180,  i8i 
Incubus,  155 

Ino  Leukothea,  128,  129,  188,  224, 
257 

lo,  28,  43,  44,  67,  180 
lobates,  185,  1 86 
lokaste,  190,  19 1,  228 
lolaos,  206,  207 
lole,  21 1,  214 
lolkos,  221,  223,  227 
Ion,  196,  197,  198 
lom’ans,  63,  123,  179,  216 
Ionian  Sea,  52 

Iphigeneia,  240,  242,  252,  253 
IphiWes,  204 
Iphis,  229 
Iphitos,  21 1 

Iris,  27,  28,  31,  215,  236 

Iron  Age,  ^ee  Ages  of  Man 

Islands  of  the  Blest,  22,  165,  175 

Ismene,  192,  228 

Isthmian  Games,  see  Games 

Ithaka,  237,  257 

Itylos,  see  Itys 

Itys,  197 

lulus,  258 

Ixion,  164 

lynx,  28 

Janiculus,  158 
Janus,  117,  118,  158 
Japetos,  12,  15,  176 
Jason,  96,  221,  223,  224,  226-228 
230 

Juno,  29— 

Lucina,  29 
Junones,  29 
Jupiter,  92,  1 17,  160  ' 

Optimus  Maximus,  26 
Capitolinus,  26 
Juvenal,  3 
Juventas,  32 

Kadmeia  (Cadmaea),  187 
Kadmos  (Cadmus),  128,  186-189, 
224,  233 
Kaineus,  19 1 
Kalais,  77,  224,  225 
Kalaureia,  123,  188 


Kalchas,  239,  240,  242 
Kalliope,  83,  86,  104 
Kallirrhoe,  32 
Kallisto,  72 

Kalydon,  63,  77,  90,  176,  180,  214, 
220,  221,  223 

Kalydonian  Boar,  see  Kalydon 
Kalypso,  257  . 

Kambyses,  71 

Kapaneus,  182,  229,  231,  232 
Karia  (Caria),  69,  94 
Karneia,  58 
Karpo,  34 

Kassandra,  234,  247,  251,  252 

Kassiopeia,  183 

Kastor,  221,  223,  235,  236 

Kauko,  156 

Kekropeia,  195 

Kekropides,  196 

Kekrops,  25,  195,  196,  197 

Keleos,  136 

Kentaur,  see  Centaur 

Kephalos,  70,  71 

Kepheus,  180,  183,  184,  213 

Kerberos,  42,  162,  2II 

Keres,  91 

Kerkopes,  212 

Kerkyon,  21 7 

Kerykeion,  31,  44 

Keryneian  Stag,  207 

Keryx,  196 

Keto,  129,  168,  169 

Kimon,  220 

Kinyras,  95 

Kirke,  66,  73,  156,  255,256 

Kithairon,  189,  190,  206 

Kladeos,  208 

Kleitos,  70 

Kleonai,  206 

Kleta,  106 

Klio,  83 

Klotho,  37 

Klyniene,  67,  176 

Klytaimnestra,  235,  240,  252 

Knidos,  94 

Koios,  12 

Kokytos,  162 

Kolchis,  176,  223,  224,  226,  227 
Kolonos,  230 
Kore,  138,  139,  166 


266 


INDEX 


Koronis,  77 
Kos,  79,  213 

Kourotrophos,  see  Athene 
Kratos,  15 
Kreios,  12 

Kreon,  206, 227,  230-232 
Kreousa  (Creusa),  197,  198,  227 
Kreta,  sec  Crete 
Krommyon,  216,  221 
Kronia,  16 
Kronidai,  14 
Kronion,  see  Zeus 

Kronos,  11-14,  16,  19,  21,  27,  83, 
III,  134,  161,  163,  167,  I7S,  176 
Kuretes,  14 
Kybele,  see  Rhea 
Kyklades,  52 
Kyklops,  see  Cyclops 
Kyknos,  68,  90 
Kyllene,  41,  43 
Kypros,  see  Cyprus 
Kythera  (Cythera),  94 
Kyzikos,  224 

Labdakos,  188-190,  197 
Labyrinth,  199,  200,  218,  219 
Lachesis,  37 
Ladon,  210 
Laertes,  237,  257 
Laestrygones,  255 
Laios,  1 90- 1 92 
Lakedaimon,  182,  213,  221 
Lakonia,  65 
Lampetia,  68 
Laokoon,  249,  250 
Laomedon,  54,  56,  120,  209,  212, 
213 

Lapithai,  192- 194 
Lararium,  116 
Lares,  115,  116 
Larvae,  13,  116 
Latinus,  258 
Latium,  117 
Latmos,  69 
Lavinia,  258 
Learchos,  224 
Leda,  235 

Lemnos,  95,  106,  108,  109,  224, 
240,  241,  248 
Lemures,  116 


Lemuria,  1 16 
Lenaia,  146 
Lenaion,  146 
Lerna,  12 1,  206 
Lesbos,  246 

Leto,  23,  28,  52,  55,  57,  61,  73, 
163 

Leukippos,  235 
Leukosia,  129 

Leukothea,  see  Ino  Leukothea 
Liber,  147 
Liberalia,  148 

Libitina,  167  ; see  also  Venus 

Libya,  180,  187,  209,  210 

Lichas,  215 

Ligeia,  129 

Linos,  86,  88,  204 

Lipari  Islands,  76 

Litai,  39 

Livy,  3. 

Lubentina,  167 
Luna,  69 
Lupercal,  155 
Lupercalia,  155 
Luperci,  155 
Lydia,  57,  150,  212 
Lykaon,  24 
Lykia,  182,  185,  198 
Lykastos,  199 
Lykos,  189,  198 

Lykourgos  (Lycurgus),  65,  142,  143, 
230 

Lykomedes,  220,  238 
Lynkeus,  181,  221,  235 
Lysippos,  27 

Machaon,  248 
Maia,  23,  41,  156 
Maion,  17 

Mainads,  142,  143,  145,  153,  188 
Manes,  116 

Marathon,  65,  120,  154,  208 
Marathonian  Bull,  208,  218 
Mars,  9I-93» 

Gradivus,  92 
Marspiter,  91 
Marsyas,  17,57,  152 
Matronalia,  29 

Medeia  (Medea),  73,  96,  218,  226- 
228,  255 


INDEX 


• 267 


Meditrina,  160 
Meditrinalia,  160 

Medusa,  46,  48,  121,  169,  170,  183 
Megaira,  13,  168 
Megapenthes,  184 
Megalesia,  18 
Megara,  197-199,  206 
Melampus,  182,  229 
Meleagros  (Meleager),  63,  77,  90, 
220-223 

Melikertes  Palaimon,  128,  129,  224 
Melpomene,  83 
Memnon,  71,  246,  247 
Menelaos,  126,  161;,  202,  203,  233- 
237, 248, 251, 252, 254 
Menoikeus,  190,  231 
Menoitos,  176,  238 
Mercurius,  45 
Merope,  72 
Messene,  65 
Metageitnia,  59 
Metion,  198 
Metis,  22,  34,  45 
Midas,  57,  152 
Milanion,  229 
Miletus,  54 
Minerva,  51,  52,  112 
Minos,  105,  14’,  163,  176,  198- 
200,  208,  218 
Minotaur,  199,  200,  218 
Minstrels,  86 
Mithras,  74,  75 
Mnemosyne,  12,23,  81,  86 
Moirai,  34,  37,  220 
Morning  Star,  see  Phosphoros 
Morpheus,  172,  173 
Mors,  170 

Moschylos,  108,  109 
Mulciber,  no 
Musagetes,  see  Apollo 
Musaios,  88 
Murcia,  see  Venus 

Muses,  23,  32,  35,  54,  59,  62,  81- 
88,  105,  106,  129,  170,  247 
Mycale,  123 

Mycenae,  184,  202,  203,  206-209, 
221,  252,  253 
Mykenai,  see  Mycenae 
Myrmidons,  243 
Myrtilos,  202 


Mysia,  213,  239 
Mysteries  of — 

Eleusis,  5,  88,  104,  138,  139, 
166 

Mithras,  75 

Naiads,  150 
Narkissos,  96,  150 
Nauplios,  181 
Naxos,  124,  143,  219 
Nekromanteia,  163 
Neleus,  213,  223 
Nemea,  230 

Nemean  Games,  see  Games 
Nemean  Lion,  206 
Nemesia,  40 
Nemesis,  39,  40 

Neoptolemos,  54,  238,  248,  251, 
252,  258 
Nepheb,  224 
Neptunus  (Neptune),  124 
Nereids,  124,  127-129,  184 
Nereus,  127,  132,  210 
Nessos,  214,  215 
Nestor,  193,  213,  223,  237,  252 
Nike,  15,  31  ; see  also  Athene 
Nile,  130 

Niobe,  53,  57,  63,  190,  201 
Nisos,  198 
Nomios,  see  Apollo 
Notos,  69,  76 

Numa  Pompilius,  93,  112,  114,  118 
157, 160 
Nykteus,  189 
Nymphaia,  149 
Nymphs — 

Melian,  13 
Sea,  72 
Nysa,  142 
Nyx,  173 

Ocean,  see  Okeanos 
Odysseus,  49,  72,  76,  128,  130,  237, 
238,  240,  246-250,  252,  254-258 
(Edipus,  190,  191,  228,  230,232 
CEta,  215 
Ogyges,  179 

Ogygian  Flood,  176,  179 
Oiax,  181 
Oichalia,  21 1,  214 


268 


INDEX 


Oidipous,  see  CEdipus 
Oikles,  212,  229 
Oineus,  214,  220,  221, 

Oinomaos,  90,  121,  201,  202 
Okaleia,  18 1 
Okeanides,  130,  176 
Okeanos  (Ocean),  9,  12,  15,  22,  31, 
66,  69,  121,  124,  I2S,  130,  132, 
150,  163,  165,  172,  209 
Olympia,  25,  26,  28,  34,  42,  45,  50, 
III,  202 

Olympian  Games,  see  Games 
Olympians,  9,  10,  76 
Olympos,  9,  14,  16,  31,  39,  56,  69, 
73,  78,  Si,  82,  106-108,  no,  143, 
148,  1S6,  201,  215,  246,  247 
Omphale,  212 
Oneiros,  172 
Opheltes,  230 
Ops,  158,  159 

Optimus  Maximus,  see  Jupiter 
Oracle  of — 

Apollo  at  Delphi,  34,  55,  187, 
198,  206 

Apollo  at  Branchidai,  54 
Asklepios  at  Epidaurus,  78 
Orchomenos,  105,  106,  206 
Oreads,  150 
Oreithyia,  76,  197 
Orestes,  55,  65,  168,  240,  252,  253 
Orion,  63,  70-72 

Orpheus,  42,  86-88,  129,  162,  192, 
223 

Orthia,  see  Artemis 
Orthosia,  see  Artemis 
Oschophoria,  220 
Othrys,  15 

Ourania  (Urania),  84 ; see  also 
Aphrodite 

Ouranidai,  12,  14,  15 

Ouranos  (Uranus),  H-14,  I7»  34» 

83. 130 

Ovid,  3 

Pactolus,  152 
Palaestra,  /j2 

Palaimon,  see  Melikertes  Palaimon 
Palamedes,  44,  181,  237,  239 
Pales,  157 
Palilia,  158 


Palladion,  49,  50,  52,  248,  250 

Palladium,  112  ; see  also  Palladion 

Pallantidai,  218 

Pallas  Athene,  see  Athene 

Pallas,  198,  218 

Pallas  (the  Giant),  31,  69 

Pallor,  92 

Pan,  28,  57,  142,  145,  150,  153- 

155 

Panathenaia,  50,  196,  220 
Pandemos,  see  Aphrodite 
Pandion,  196 
Pandion  II.,  197,  198 
Pandora,  178 
Pandrosos,  196 
Paphos,  96 
Parcae,  37 

Paris,  28,  95,  202,  233,  234,  236, 
237,  247,  248 

Parnassos,  22,  82,  145,  197 
Parthenon,  22,  50 
Parthenopaios,  90,  229 
Parthenope,  129 
Parthenos,  see  x^thene 
Pasiphae,  199 
Pasithea,  106 

Patroklos,  54,  238,  239,  243,  245 
Pavor,  92 
Pedasos,  241 

Pegasos,  47,  69,  1 21,  170,  185,  186 
Peirithoos,  192,  193,  21 1,  219,  220, 
224 

Peitho,  99,  104 

Peleus,  82,  121,  128,  212,221,223, 
233»  237,  238 
Pelias,  223,  227 
Pelion,  77,  192,  239 
Pelopidai,  202,  215 
Peloponnesos,  57,  58,  65,  201,  215 
Pelops,  121,  176,  201,  202,  215, 
216 

Penates,  114,  115 
Penelope,  237,  257 
Penthesileia,  186,  245,  246 
Pentheus,  142,  143,  188,  189 
Pephredo,  168 
Perga mon,  81 
Periklymenos,  213 
Periphetes,  216 
Perse,  66 


INDEX 


269 


Persephone,  23,  58,  73,  87,  95, 
129,  133,  135,  136,  161,  162, 
165-167,  21 1,  220 
Perses,  73 

Perseus,  46,  120,  168- 1 70,  176, 

182-184,  202,  204 
Pessinus,  18 
Petasos,  44 
Phaenna,  106 
Phaethon,  67,  68 
Phaethusa,  68 
Phaiacians,  257 
Phaidra,  96,  199 
Phantasos,  172 
Pharos,  126 

Pheidias,  3,  25,  27,  50,  99 
Pherai,  56,  221 
Pheraia,  73 
Philemon,-  24 

Philoktetes,  215,  240,241,  248,  252 

Philomela,  196,  197 

Phineus,  180,  225 

Phlius,  32 

Phobetor,  172 

Phobos,  91 

Phoibe,  12,  235 

Phoibos,  see  Apollo 

Phokis,  182,  252 

Pholos,  207 

Phorkus,  129,  168,  169 

Phosphoios,  70,  71 

Phrixos,  224,  226 

Phrygia,  17,  18,  24,  32,  75,  150, 
152,  201 
Phthia,  233 
Picumnus,  156 
Picus,  156 
Pieria,  81 
Pieros,  8 1,  82 
Pillars  of  Hercules,  209 
Pilumnus,  156 
Pindar,  3,  105 
Pindus,  82  - 

Pittheus,  216 
Plato,  3 
Pleiades,  72 
Pleisthenes,  203 

Plouton  (Pluto),  42,  73,  78,  87,  108, 
134-136,  138,  161,  165,  220  ; see 
also  Aides 


Ploutos  (Plutus),  35 
Podarkes,  213 
Polias,  see  Athene 
Pollux,  156  ; see  also  Polydeukes 
Polos,  38 
Polybos,  1 91 
Polybotes,  119 
Polydektes,  183,  184 
Polydeukes,  156,  221,  223,225,  235 
Polydoros,  188 
Polyhymmia,  85 
Polyneikes,  192,  228-232 
Polyphemos,  128,  254 
Pomona,  160 
Pontifex  Maximus,  1 13 
Pontios,  see  Glaukos  Pontios 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  9,  13,  16,  21, 
45»  47>  56,  72,  76,  91 » 96,  108, 
III,  119-125,  128,134,  161,  164, 
169,  180,  181,  184,  187,  195,  196, 
199,  202,  208,  209,  227,  254,  255, 
257 

Pothos,  103 

Praxiteles,  3,  42,  45,  61,  94,  97,  99 
Priamos,  202,  213,  233,  234,  241, 
244,  247,  250,  251,  258 
Priapos,  154 
Procne,  196,  197 
Proitides,  182 
Proitos,  181,  182,  184,  185 
Prokris,  70,  197 
Prokrustes,  217 
Promachos,  see  Athene 
Prometheus,  22,  45,  loi,  109,  176- 
179,  192,  210 
Proserpina,  165-167 
Proteus,  126 
Psyche,  111-103 
Psychopompbs,  see  Hermes 
Pyanepsia,  2 19 
Pylades,  252,  253 
Pylos,  182,  198,  213,  237 
Pyriphlegethon,  162 
Pyrrha,  22,  179 
Pythia,  54,  212 
Pythian  Games,  see  Game 
Pythios,  see  Apollo 
Python,  53,  55,  56 

Quinquatria,  52 


270 


INDEX 


Remus,  92,  114,  116,  155 
Rhadamanthos,  163,  165,  198 
Rhamnus,  40 

Rhea,  12-14,  16-18,  27,  64,  iii, 
133,  134,  143,  150,  152,  153 
Rhea-Kybele,  see  Rhea 
Rhea-Silvia,  1 14 
Rhodes,  66 
Rhodos,  see  Rhodes 
Roman  or  Great  Games,  see  Games 
Rome,  50,  I "2,  1 13,  118 
Romulus,  92,  no,  114,  116,  155 

Sacrifice,  5,  6 
Salacia,  124 

Salamis,  48,  55,  136,  154 
Salii,  93 
Sarpedon,  198 
Saturnalia,  16,  Ii5>  158 
Saturnus,  156,  158,  159 
Satyrs,  145,  148,  150-152 
Sauroktonos,  see  Apollo 
Scirios,  72 
Scylla,  256 
Scythia,  209 

Secular  Games,  see  Games 
Seilenos,  142,  145,  1 50-1 52 
Selene,  61,  69,  88 
Semele,  23,  128,  141,  142,  188 
Semnai,  167 
Seriphos,  183,  184 
Servius  Tullius,  114,  115 
Seven  against  Thebes,  228 
Sicily,  76,  109,  135,  258 
Side,  28 

Sikyon,  104,  167,  189,  229 
Silen,  150,  152 
Silenus,  150 
Silvanus,  156 

Silver  Age,  see  Ages  of  Man 
Silvia,  see  Rhea-Silvia 
Sinis,  216 
Sinonj  250 
Sintians,  106 
Sipylos,  57 

Sirens,  82,87,  129,  130,  256 
Sisyphos,  163,  185 
Skeiron,  216 
Skyros,  220,  238,  248 
Smyrna,  40 


. Sol,  68,  74 
Somnus,  170 
Sophokles,  3,  192 
Soteira,  see  Athene 
Sparta,  58,  65,  99,  106,  202,  203, 
235,  252,  254 
Spartai,  184,  188 
Sphinx,  191 
Stars,  71 

Stheneboia,  182,  185,  186 
Sthenelos,  202,  204 
Stheno,  169 
Stymphalides,  208 
Stymphalos,  208 
Styx,  15,  31,  67,  142,  162 
Suada,  104 
Symplegades,  225 
Syrinx,  154 

Tacitus,  3 
Talos,  200 

Tantalos,  163,  190,  20T 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  26 
'Partaros,  15,  28,  1 30,  163,  1 70 
Tauris,  65,  240,  253 
Tegea,  213  ' 

Teiresias,  231,  256 

Telamon,  212,  2.3,  245,  247 

Telchines,  109 

Teleia,  see  Hera 

Telemachos,  237,  257 

Telephos,  213,  239,  240,  248 

Telesphoros,  81 

Tellus,  139  ; see  also  Gaia 

Tempe,  124 

Tenedos,  250 

Tenos,  124 

Tereus,  196,  197 

Terminalia,  157 

Terminus,  157 

Terpsichore,  86 

Tethys,  12,  124,  125,  130 

Teuthras,  213"^ 

Thalassios,  see  Hymen 
Thalia,  83,  106 
Thallo,  34 
Thalysia,  138 
Thamyris,  82,  86,  88 
Thanatos,  170,  17 1,  185 
Thargelia,  58 


INDEX 


271 


Thaumas,  31  , 

Thebais,  228 

Theban  war,  175,  176,  182,  228 
Thebe,  189 

Thebes  (in  Boeotia),  34,  57,  62,  63, 
89»  90,  95»  99»  Hh  142, 186-189, 
191,  192,  197,  201,  206,  23Q-233 
Thebes  (in  Egypt),  71 
Theia,  12,  6b,  69 

Themis,  12,  34,  35,  55,  56,  133. 

149,  150,  233 
Themistokles,  55 
Theokritos,  3 
Thersites,  246 

Theseus,  46,  51,  58,  104,  120,  123, 
143,  176,  186,  193,  194,  200,  201, 
21 1,  216-221,  224,  227,  230 
Thesmophoria,  135,  138 
Thesmophoros,  see  Demeter 
Thespiai,  99,  206 

Thessaly,  14,  56,  77,  124,  192,  207, 
219,  221,  223,  233 
Thestios,  206 

Thetis,  34,  66,  82,  107,  108,  128, 
142,  233,  237,  242,  244,  247 
Thrace,  86,  87,  142,  196,  208 
Thyestes,  202,  203,  252 
Thukydides,  3 
Tiryns,  182,  184,  186,  21 1 
Tisiphone,  13,  168 
Titans,  12-15,  21,  46,  56,  69,  73, 

83,  130.  133,  176 

Tithonos,  70,  71,  246 
Tityos,  163 
Trinakria,  67,  256 
Triptolemos,  137,  163 
Tritons,  121,  124- 127 
Tritogeneia,  see  Athene 
Tritonia,  see  Athene 
Tritonis,  45 
Troas,  56 
Troezene,  34,  216 

Trojan  War,  175,  176,  181,  186, 
"2027528,  233,  236 
Troilos,  241 
Tros,  32,  212 

Troy,  28,  32,  46,  49,  57,  63,  113, 
209,  213,  233,  234,  236,  237- 
240,  243,  245,  247,  258 
First  siege  of,  212 


Troy,  Second  siege  of,  241 
Turnus,  258 
Tyche,  37,  39 
Tydeus,  229,  231,  246 
Tyndareus,  213,  235 
Typhoeus,  see  Typhon 
Typhon,  15,  44,  76 
Tyrrhenians,  143 

Underworld,  256 
Underworld  gods,  i6|,  s<^ 

Venus,  98 
Cloacina,  98 
Genetrix,  98 
Libitina,  98 
Murcia,  98 
Victrix,  98 
Vertumnus,  160 
Vesta,  93,  112-115 
Vestal  virgins,  113.  114 
Vestalia,  114 
Victor,  see  Eros 
Victoria,  98 
Victrix,  see  Venus 
Vulcan,  1 10 
Vulcanalia,  no 

Winds,  76,  77 

Xenophon,  3 
Xuthos,  179,  197,  198 

Zelos,  15 

Zephyros,  36,  57,  69,  76 
Zethos,  89,  189,  190 
Zetes,  77,  224,  225 
Zeus,  9,  II,  13-16,  19,  21-29,  3U 
32.  34.  35,  37-46,  48,  so,  52, 
56,  57,  67,  69,  72,  73,  76,  78, 

80-82,90,94,99,  IO6-IO8,  III, 

1 19,  120,  126,  128,  134-136, 
138,  I4I,  142,  149,  150,  153, 
161,  164,  165,  177-180,  182- 
189,  198,  199,  202-204,  210, 
212,  214,  215,  224,  225,  231- 
236,  238,  242,  244,  246 
Kronion,  19 
Kronides,  19 
Zygia,  see  Hera 


I 


